CHAPTER 2: CELL CYCLE

Cell Cycle

 Is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells
 Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth,
DNA replication, and division that produce two genetically identical cells.
 The cell cycle has three major phases: interphase, mitotic phase and cytokinesis.
 Enables an organism to continue its existence by multiplying itself in controlled and systematic processes
 Cells need to undergo cycles as part of their growth and to repair or replace damaged ones
 Different cells take different lengths of time to complete the cell cycle. A typical human cell might take about 24
hours to divide, but fast-cycling mammalian cells, like the ones that line the intestine, can complete a cycle every 9-10
hours when they're grown in culture.

A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G1 involves cell growth and protein
synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G2 involves further growth
and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which duplicated
chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis in a process
called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.
Cell Division

 Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two new cells, referred to as
daughter cells. How this happens depends on whether the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
 Cell division is simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes because prokaryotic cells themselves are simpler. Prokaryotic
cells have a single circular chromosome, no nucleus, and few other organelles.
 Eukaryotic cells, in contrast, have multiple chromosomes contained within a nucleus and many other organelles. All
of these cell parts must be duplicated and then separated when the cell divides.
 Cell division is just one of several stages that a cell goes through during its lifetime.

Phases of the Cell Cycle

1. Interphase
The stages in the cell cycle between one mitosis and the next, which include G1, S and G2, are known collectively as
the interphase.

a. G1 phase
 During G1 phase, also called the first gap phase, the cell grows physically larger, copies organelles, and
makes the molecular building blocks it will need in later steps.
 This is the decision-making step when the cell decides if it will start the cell cycle or rest or permanently
exit the cell cycle to become a differentiated cell (G0 phase)
 The G1 checkpoint determines whether all conditions are favorable for cell division to proceed. The
G1checkpoint, also called the restriction point, is the point at which the cell irreversibly commits to the
cell-division process. In addition to adequate reserves and cell size, there is a check for damage to the
genomic DNA at the G1 checkpoint. A cell that does not meet all the requirements will not be released
into the S phase.

b. S phase
 In S phase or synthesis phase, the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus.
  It also duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome. The centrosomes help
separate DNA during M phase.
 In the S phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication results in the formation of two identical copies of each
chromosome—sister chromatids—that are firmly attached at the centromere region.
 At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids and is a duplicated chromosome.
 The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase.
 The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the apparatus that orchestrates the movement of
chromosomes during mitosis.
 The centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right angles to each other.
 Centrioles help organize cell division. Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic
species, such as plants and most fungi.

c. G2 phase
 During the second gap phase, or G2 phase, the cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles, and
begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis.
 G2 phase ends when mitosis begins
 In G2 phase, the cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
 Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for the
mitotic spindle. There may be additional cell growth during G2.
 The final preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the cell is able to enter the first
stage of mitosis
 The G2 checkpoint bars the entry to the mitotic phase if certain conditions are not met. As in the
G1checkpoint, cell size and protein reserves are assessed. However, the most important role of the
G2checkpoint is to ensure that all of the chromosomes have been replicated and that the replicated DNA
is not damaged.

2. Mitotic phase
During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell divides its copied DNA and cytoplasm to make two new cells. M phase
involves two distinct division-related processes: mitosis and cytokinesis.
In mitosis, the nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible chromosomes and is pulled apart by the mitotic
spindle, a specialized structure made out of microtubules.
The M checkpoint occurs near the end of the metaphase stage of mitosis. The M checkpoint is also known as the
spindle checkpoint because it determines if all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle
microtubules. Because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step, the cycle
will not proceed until the kinetochores of each pair of sister chromatids are firmly anchored to spindle fibers
arising from opposite poles of the cell.
Mitosis takes place in four stages: prophase (sometimes divided into early prophase and prometaphase),
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

a. Prophase
 During prophase, the “first phase,” several events must occur to provide access to the chromosomes in the
nucleus.
 The nuclear envelope starts to break into small vesicles, and the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum
fragment and disperse to the periphery of the cell.
 The nucleolus disappears.
 The centrosomes begin to move to opposite poles of the cell.
 The microtubules that form the basis of the mitotic spindle extend between the centrosomes, pushing them
farther apart as the microtubule fibers lengthen.
 The sister chromatids begin to coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope.
 During prometaphase, many processes that were begun in prophase continue to advance and culminate in the
formation of a connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton.
 The remnants of the nuclear envelope disappear.
 The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules assemble and stretch across the length of the
former nuclear area.
 Chromosomes become more condensed and visually discrete.
 Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules at the centromere via a protein complex called the
kinetochore.

b. Metaphase
 During metaphase, all of the chromosomes are aligned in a plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial
plane, midway between the two poles of the cell.
 The sister chromatids are still tightly attached to each other.
 At this time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed.

c. Anaphase
 During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the equatorial plane are split apart at the centromere.
  Each chromatid, now called a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to which its microtubule
was attached.
 The cell becomes visibly elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide against each other at the
metaphase plate where they overlap.

d. Telophase
 During telophase, all of the events that set up the duplicated chromosomes for mitosis during the first three
phases are reversed.
 The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and begin to decondense (unravel).
 The mitotic spindles are broken down into monomers that will be used to assemble cytoskeleton components
for each daughter cell.
 Nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes.

3. Cytokinesis
In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell is split in two, making two new cells.
Cytokinesis usually begins just as mitosis is ending, with a little overlap. Importantly, cytokinesis takes place
differently in animal and plant cells
It is the physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells.
In cells such as animal cells that lack cell walls, cytokinesis begins following the onset of anaphase. A contractile
ring composed of actin filaments forms just inside the plasma membrane at the former metaphase plate. The actin
filaments pull the equator of the cell inward, forming a fissure. This fissure, or “crack,” is called the cleavage
furrow.
In plant cells, a cleavage furrow is not possible because of the rigid cell walls surrounding the plasma membrane.
A new cell wall must form between the daughter cells. During interphase, the Golgi apparatus accumulates
enzymes, structural proteins, and glucose molecules prior to breaking up into vesicles and dispersing throughout
the dividing cell. During telophase, these Golgi vesicles move on microtubules to collect at the metaphase plate.
There, the vesicles fuse from the center toward the cell walls; this structure is called a cell plate. As more vesicles
fuse, the cell plate enlarges until it merges with the cell wall at the periphery of the cell. Enzymes use the glucose
that has accumulated between the membrane layers to build a new cell wall of cellulose. The Golgi membranes
become the plasma membrane on either side of the new cell wall
G0 Phase

 Other cells that never or rarely divide, such as mature cardiac muscle and nerve cells, remain in G0 permanently
 The G0 phase is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.
 Non-dividing cells in multicellular eukaryotic organisms enter G0 from G1. These cells may remain in G0 for long
periods of time, even indefinitely, such as with neurons.
 Cells that are completely differentiated may also enter G0. Some cells stop dividing when issues of sustainability or
viability of their daughter cells arise, such as with DNA damage or degradation, a process called cellular senescence.
 Cellular senescence occurs when normal diploid cells lose the ability to divide, normally after about 50 cell divisions.

Cells that are not actively preparing to divide enter an alternate phase called G 0. In some cases, this is a temporary
condition until triggered to enter G1. In other cases, the cell will remain in G0 permanently.

Mitosis

 Is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division).
 During mitosis one cell? divides once to form two identical cells.
 The major purpose of mitosis is for growth and to replace worn out cells.
 If not corrected in time, mistakes made during mitosis can result in changes in the DNA that can potentially lead to
genetic disorders

Prophase

 The chromosomes condense into X-shaped structures that can be easily seen under a microscope.
 Each chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids, containing identical genetic information.
 The chromosomes pair up so that both copies of chromosome 1 are together, both copies of chromosome 2 are
together, and so on.
 At the end of prophase, the membrane around the nucleus in the cell dissolves away releasing the chromosomes.
 The mitotic spindle, consisting of the microtubules and other proteins, extends across the cell between the
centrioles as they move to opposite poles of the cell.
Metaphase
 The chromosomes line up neatly end-to-end along the center (equator) of the cell.
 The centrioles are now at opposite poles of the cell with the mitotic spindle fibers extending from them.
 The mitotic spindle fibers attach to each of the sister chromatids.
Anaphase
 The sister chromatids are then pulled apart by the mitotic spindle which pulls one chromatid to one pole and the
other chromatid to the opposite pole.
Telophase
 At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather together.
 A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create two new nuclei.
 The single cell then pinches in the middle to form two separate daughter cells each containing a full set of
chromosomes within a nucleus. This process is known as cytokinesis.

Illustration showing the five stages of mitosis

Meiosis

 Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the amount of genetic
information as the original parent cell. These cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females.
 Meiosis consists of two sets of cell division – Meiosis I and Meiosis II, resulting in four daughter cells having only
half of the number of chromosomes of its parent cell (haploid)
 In humans, the chromosomes are reduced to only half to the set of the chromosome number (23) so that when the
gametes undergo fertilization, it will add up and return to its original complete set of chromosomes
Difference of Meiosis and Mitosis
Meiosis allows the exchange of genetic material (crossing over) between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes when they line up side by side during prophase I (synapsis).
The independent assortment of the chromosomes increases the genetic variability among the daughter cells produced
during meiosis
The alleles of the same gene separate during meiosis wherein, characteristics increase the genetic variability in the
offspring and are important in understanding genetics and evolution in sexually reproducing organisms

Stages of Meiosis
Meiosis I – The first meiotic division is a reduction division (diploid → haploid) in which homologous chromosomes are
separated
Prophase I: Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, homologous chromosomes form bivalents,
crossing over occurs
Metaphase I: Spindle fibers from opposing centrosomes connect to bivalents (at centromeres) and align them
along the middle of the cell
Anaphase I: Spindle fibers contract and split the bivalent, homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of
the cell
Telophase I: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear membrane may reform, cell divides (cytokinesis) to form two
haploid daughter cells

Meiosis II – The second division separates sister chromatids (these chromatids may not be identical due to crossing over
in prophase I)
Prophase II: Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, centrosomes move to opposite poles
(perpendicular to before)
Metaphase II: Spindle fibers from opposing centrosomes attach to chromosomes (at centromere) and align them
along the cell equator
Anaphase II: Spindle fibers contract and separate the sister chromatids, chromatids (now called chromosomes)
move to opposite poles
Telophase II: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear membrane reforms, cells divide (cytokinesis) to form four
haploid daughter cells
The final outcome of meiosis is the production of four haploid daughter cells
These cells may all be genetically distinct if crossing over occurs in prophase I (causes recombination of sister
chromatids)
Cell Cycle, Cell Death and Diseases

 Errors in Mitosis lead to an incorrect copy of the DNA which may produce benign or deadly functional consequences
depending on the error
 The positive correlation with the malfunction of these processes to the onset of major diseases such as cancer, stroke,
atherosclerosis, inflammation and some neurodegenerative disorders in increasingly proven in various studies

Mitosis and Cancer

Two errors in the process of copying DNA (contains the hereditary material of an organism)
1. Silent Mutation – the DNA is improperly copied
2. Missense Mutation – causes a change in the sequence bringing an impact with the associated function, when carried
over to the next cells, can multiply and aggravate over time which leads to cell cycle disruption and formation of
tumors

Chromosome Abnormalities
Aneuploidy (failure of the paired chromosome to separate)

 A disorder when a cell has an incorrect number or set of chromosomes which occurs due to nondisjunction of
homologous chromosomes during metaphase 1 in meiosis when the mitotic checkpoint failed and the spindle fiber did
not attach to the center of the chromosome
 Results in having one daughter cell with an excess number of chromosome.
 Down syndrome has an extra chromosome (number 13) making the organism to have 47 total chromosomes
 Turner syndrome lacks one on its sex chromosomes (44 autosomes and X) or 45 chromosomes

Effects on Organelles

 In cancer cells, where the checkpoints are overridden, the cell organelle becomes unregulated
 When cell division does not stop, there is no opportunity for organelles to recover which may eventually lead to cell
death
CHAPTER 3: CELLULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISM

 Cells are surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer known as the cell membrane which demarcates the internal and
external environment of the cell.
 The structure of the membrane is designed to be selectively permeable, which means that it allows only certain
substances to enter and leave the cell
 There are different membrane transports, and these mechanisms maintain the state of equilibrium of the cell

Membrane Transport
 Cell membrane structures and the phospholipid bilayer

Plasma Membrane

 Phospholipids and proteins are the principal components of membranes however, different types of organisms have
varying compositions and structures too
 The plasma membrane is generally composed of a phospholipid molecule having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
heads

Fluid Mosaic Model

 The Fluid Mosaic Model proposed by Singer and Nicolson shows how are phospholipids and proteins are arranged in
the membranes
 Says that proteins are sandwiched in between two phospholipid layers.
 The molecules are amphipathic (possess both polar hydrophobic and nonpolar hydrophilic ends)
 Hydrophobic (water-repelling) region is in the form of two tails of fatty acids
 Hydrophilic (water-loving) region is in the form of head
 The red polar head separates the yellow hydrophobic tails from the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments.
 This phospholipid bilayer performs self-assembly to form a continuous, spherical structure around the cell content,
which can include noncovalent interactions such as van der Waals, electrostatic, and hydrogen bonds to maintain the
integrity of the membrane
 The bilayer does not allow the passage of ions and polar molecules (amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates,
proteins and ions) but it permits the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules – this affords the cell the ability to
control the movement of substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates

Transport proteins
 Allow molecules to cross the membrane into or out of the cell, polar molecules avoid contact with the nonpolar
interior of the membrane, and large molecules are moved through large pores.
 Every cell is contained within a membrane punctuated with transport proteins that act as channels or pumps to let in or
force out certain molecules.
 The purpose of the transport proteins is to protect the cell's internal environment and to keep its balance of salts,
nutrients, and proteins within a range that keeps the cell and the organism alive.

Integral Transport Proteins

 Are proteins on the inner side of the bilipid membrane which are like funnels or channels for the passage of water
and/or other substances.

1. Uniporter – transports substances in a unidirectional manner depending on the concentration gradient

2. Symporters – transports different types of molecules in the cell membrane at the same time
3. Antiporter – transports different types of molecules in the cell membrane at the same time but in opposite direction

Diagram showing the comparison of the three transport protein

Extrinsic/Peripheral Proteins
 Other proteins found on the cell membrane which acts as receptors for hormones, recognition centers and antigens.
 Glycophorins – proteins present in red blood cell which acts as antigen determinant that can tell whether a foreign
tissue can be incorporated or rejected by the host organism

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
 Passive transport is a type of membrane transport that does not require energy to move substances across cell
membranes.

Diffusion
 Occurs when particles move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
 Diffusion is an example of passive transport because energy is not a requirement during the process
 Biological importance of diffusion: movement of oxygen from air into the blood and the carbon dioxide out of the
blood into the surrounding air in the lungs
 Diffusion of water, salts, and waste products occurs in the kidneys.
 Diffusion of calcium from food into cells occurs in the intestines.
 Osmosis – movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of higher concentration to a
relatively low concentration of water, which governs the movement of water inside the body to maintain homeostasis
SIMPLE DIFFUSION

 Simple diffusion is a type of passive transport which, as the name suggests, is simply the movement of solute
which occurs when its electrochemical potentials on the two sides of a permeable barrier are different.
 While in other science disciplines like chemistry, diffusion refers to “spreading out” of molecules from a higher
concentration in biology, the process involves a selectively permeable biological membrane.
 In simple diffusion, like all other passive transport mechanisms, the movement of molecules occurs along the
concentration gradient until the concentration of solute is uniform on either side.
 Hydrophobic (water-hating) molecules, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), can easily pass through
the lipid bilayer
 Ions such as calcium (Ca2+) and polar molecules such as water (H2O) cannot. The hydrophobic interior of the
phospholipid bilayer does not allow ions or polar molecules through because they are hydrophilic, or water
loving. In addition, large molecules such as sugars and proteins are too big to pass through the phospholipid
bilayer.

There are four main ways that molecules can pass through a phospholipid membrane.
1. The first way requires no energy input by the cell and is called simple diffusion. This type of transport includes
passive diffusion and osmosis. No assistance by a transport is necessary in simple diffusion.
2. Facilitated diffusion, does involve the assistance of transport proteins.
3. The third way, called active transport, requires that the cell uses energy to pull in or pump out certain molecules
and ions. Active transport involves proteins known as pumps.
4. The fourth way is through vesicle transport, in which large molecules are moved across the membrane in bubble-
like sacks that are made from pieces of the membrane. Vesicular transport includes exocytosis and endocytosis.

Homeostasis and Cell Transport

 Homeostasis refers to the balance, or equilibrium, within the cell or a body.
 It is an organism's ability to keep a constant internal environment.
 Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments as conditions change inside and outside the
cell.
 The adjusting of systems within a cell is referred to as homeostatic regulation. Because the internal and external
environments of a cell are constantly changing, adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the
normal proportions of all internal substances. This involves continual adjustments in transport of substances
across the cell membrane. Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium rather than an unchanging state.
 The cellular processes discussed in the cell transport (passive and active transport) concepts all play an important
role in homeostatic regulation.

Factors affecting Simple diffusion

Because the rate of diffusion is determined by several parameters, these parameters/factors affect the mechanism of
diffusion.
1. Concentration gradient
 The concentration gradient across a biological membrane is the driving force for the diffusion of a
nonelectrolyte.
 Therefore, the higher the concentration difference across the membrane, the higher will be the rate of
diffusion.
 As the distribution of molecules across the membrane moves towards uniformity, the rate of diffusion
decreases.
 Once equilibrium is maintained across the membrane, the process of diffusion ceases.

2. Mass/Size of the solute molecules

 The size of the molecules also affects the rate of diffusion across a biological membrane.
 If the size of the molecules is large, it will be more difficult for it to move across the membrane, which, in
turn, slows the rate of diffusion of the molecule.
 Thus, the rate of diffusion is higher for smaller molecules and slower for larger molecules.

3. Temperature
 The temperature of the system also affects the process of simple diffusion.
 With the increase in temperature, the energy of the molecules also increases.
 Molecules with higher energy can move faster across the membrane while particles with lower energy
move slower.

4. Solubility
 The solubility of molecules in a medium also affects the rate of diffusion of the particles.
 Molecules which are lipid-soluble can move quickly across the lipid layer like the plasma membrane.
 Similarly, polar and non-polar molecules also move with a different rate depending on the nature of the
biological membrane.
5. Solvent density
 With the increase in solvent density, the rate of diffusion decreases.
 More dense a solvent, more difficult it will be for the solute to move around.
 Solvent density plays an essential role in the movement of solute in the cytoplasm of the cell.
 An increase in the density of the cytoplasm slows down the movement of the molecules and gases, and
the reverse is true for less dense cytoplasm.

6. Surface area and thickness of the biological membrane

 The rate of diffusion increase with the increase in the surface area of the membrane.
 The increase in surface area increases the permeability or mobility of the molecules as mobility is one of
the factors responsible for the flux.
 Similarly, the rate of diffusion is also reduced by the increasing thickness of the membrane.

Examples of Simple diffusion

Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
 One of the classic examples of simple diffusion is the movement of gases across the membrane in animals.
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood is exchanged by the process of simple diffusion.
 Depending on the concentration gradient of these gases in the cells, the direction of the movement of gases is
determined.
 In the alveoli, the concentration of oxygen is more as compared to the blood vessels under inhalation. Thus, the
movement of oxygen occurs from alveoli to the blood.
 Similarly, during exhalation, the concentration of carbon dioxide is more in the blood as compared to the alveoli,
which results in the movement of carbon dioxide towards the lungs.
 A similar process occurs during the exchange of gases between blood and cells.

Movement of waste materials

 In animals, the removal of waste materials occurs via simple diffusion.
 In the liver, waste material, urea, is excreted onto the blood by the process f simple diffusion.
 Similarly, in kidneys, removal of waste chemicals and toxins and absorption of water occurs via simple diffusion.
A separate active transport also occurs in some parts of the kidneys.

Nutrition in bacteria
 Prokaryotes like bacteria do not have a specialized mechanism for the movement of nutrition, water, gases and
other solutes throughout their body.
 Therefore, they rely on the process of simple diffusion for the movement of these molecules within the
cytoplasm.
 In addition, the excretion of waste materials in bacteria is also aided by simple diffusion as it occurs via the
general body surface.

Application of Simple diffusion

The concept of simple diffusion is applied in various fields like the food, medicine, and environment
1. In beverages like tea and soda, the diffusion of gases and chemicals from tea leaves plays a vital role in the
development of the particular taste.
2. The process of simple diffusion is applied in the action of medicines in the body. Once a medicine is ingested, the
molecules are released into the respective sites of action through the process of simple diffusion.
3. Air pollution is another phenomenon that is a result of diffusion. The diffusion of various gases released from
agricultural, industrial, and mechanical processes results in air pollution.
4. The formation of alloys is also a result of diffusion. Under long-term exposure of one metal to another, the atoms
diffuse from one metal to another to fill the spaces. This results in the formation of different alloys.

SUMMARY

 The difference in the concentration of molecules across a membrane is called a concentration gradient

 Diffusion is driven by the kinetic energy of the molecules

 Kinetic energy keeps molecules in constant motion causing the molecules to move randomly away from each
other in a liquid or a gas

 The rate of diffusion depends on temperature, size of the molecules, & type of molecules diffusing

 Molecules diffuse faster at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures

 Smaller molecules diffuse faster than larger molecules

 Most short-distance transport of materials into & out of cells occurs by diffusion
  Solutions have two parts --- the solute which is being dissolved in the solvent

 Water serves as the main solvent in living things

 Diffusion always occurs down a concentration gradient (water moves from an area where it is more concentrated
to an area where it is less concentrated)

 Diffusion continues until the concentration of the molecules is the same on both sides of a membrane

 When a concentration gradient no longer exists, equilibrium has been reached but molecules will continue to
move equally back & forth across a membrane

Osmosis - Osmosis is simply the diffusion of water; it has its own name because water is so important to life. Solutions
with higher amounts of dissolved substances have lower concentrations of water, and water will diffuse across membranes
in order to minimize the difference in concentration.

 The diffusion of water across a semi permeable membrane is called osmosis

 Diffusion occurs from an area of high water concentration (less solute) to an area of lower water
concentration (more solute)

 Movement of water is down its concentration gradient & doesn’t require extra energy

 Cytoplasm is mostly water containing dissolved solutes

 Concentrated solutions have many solute molecules & fewer water molecules

 Water moves from areas of low solute concentration to areas of high solute concentration

 Water molecules will cross membranes until the concentrations of water & solutes is equal on both sides of the
membrane; called equilibrium

 At equilibrium, molecules continue to move across membranes evenly so there is no net movement

Effect of different solutions on blood cells

Hypertonic Solution

 Solute concentration outside the cell is higher (less water)

 Water diffuses out of the cell until equilibrium is reached

 Cells will shrink and die if too much water is lost

 Plant cells become flaccid (wilt) called plasmolysis

Hypotonic Solution

 Solute concentration greater inside the cell (less water)

  Water moves into the cell until equilibrium is reached

 Animal cells swell & burst (lyse) if they take in too much water

 Cytolysis is the bursting of cells

 Plant cells become turgid due to water pressing outward against cell wall

 Turgor pressure in plant cells helps them keep their shape (the pressure exerted on a plant cell wall by water
passing into the cell by osmosis also called hydrostatic pressure)

 Plant cells do best in hypotonic solutions

Isotonic Solutions

 Concentration of solutes same inside & outside the cell

 Water moves into & out of cell at an equal rate so there is no net movement of water

 Animal cells do best in isotonic solutions

Tonicity
 is a measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient; the water potential of two solutions separated by a
semipermeable cell membrane. In other words, tonicity is the relative concentration of solutes dissolved in solution
which determine the direction and extent of diffusion

Solution Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic

Relative concentration
Effect on cell
Has a greater
concentration of solutes on
the outside of a cell when
compared with the inside
of a cell.
Water will leave the cell,
and the cell will shrink
Has the same osmolarity, Has a lower concentration
or solute concentration, as of solutes than another
another solution. solution
No net movement of water Water will follow its
into or out of the cell, thus concentration gradient and
retaining its shape enter the cell, causing the
cell to expand.

Facilitated Diffusion
 A type of passive transport which relies on carrier proteins in order for the substance to move down their
concentration gradient.

Illustration of
Facilitated Diffusion
in the cell
membrane

Active Transport
 The
movement of molecules
across a cell
membrane from a
region of lower
concentration to a
region of higher
concentration —against
the concentration gradient. Active transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement
 In active transport, substances (e.g. ions, glucose, and amino acids) move across a membrane from a region of their
lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration. Thus, they move against the direction of their
concentration gradient. Because of this, cellular energy (e.g. ATP) is used in active transport in contrast to passive
transport that utilizes kinetic and natural energy. ATP can be generated through cellular respiration.

Types of active transport

Active transport is used by cells to accumulate needed molecules such as glucose and amino acids. Active transport
powered by adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is known as primary active transport.
Transport that uses an electrochemical gradient is called secondary transport.

Primary active transport:

 The energy from hydrolysing ATP is directly coupled to the movement of sodium ions across a biological
membrane
 A primary active transport is one that uses chemical energy in the form of ATP whereas a secondary active
transport uses potential energy often from an electrochemical potential difference.
 In primary active transport, there is a direct coupling of energy such as ATP.
 Substances moved in primary active transport are Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+.
 An example is the active transport involving the sodium-potassium pump.
 It is a transport system in a biological membrane where three Na+ ions are taken out while two K+ ions are taken
into the cell against their respective concentration gradients.
 Another example is the active transport driven by the redox energy of NADH when it moves protons across the
inner mitochondrial membrane against concentration gradient.
 Photon energy can also drive primary active transport such as when the protons are moved across the thylakoid
membrane. This leads to the generation of proton gradient such as during photosynthesis.
 Most primary active transport is carried out by transmembrane ATPases, an enzyme that crosses the cell
membrane. The sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) enzyme is found in all animal cells. It
maintains cell membrane potential by pumping three sodium ions out of the cell for every two potassium ions it
moves into the cell.
 Another important example of active transport is the mitochondrial electron transport chain, which is based on
reduction of NADH. It moves protons across the mitochondrial membrane from lower to higher concentration.
This generates energy used to power life. Photosynthesis is also based on active transport. It uses the energy of
photons to move protons across the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast, creating redox potential.
Secondary active transport:

 where one substrate moves down its concentration gradient while the other moves against the concentration
gradient.
 Two types of transporters are employed: symporter (left), when the directions of movement of two substrates are
the same and antiporter (right), when the movement of two substrates are in the opposite directions.
 In secondary active transport, there is no direct ATP coupling.
 The transport is powered by the energy from electrochemical potential difference as the ions are pumped into and
out of the cell.
 In secondary active transport, one ion is allowed to move down its electrochemical gradient. This results in
increased entropy that can be used as a source of energy.
 For example, Na+ ions moving down the electrochemical gradient across the plasma membrane powers up the
transport of a second ion against its gradient, e.g. H+ ions.
 Thus, secondary active transport is also called coupled transport or cotransport. Coupled transport is defined as
the simultaneous transport of two substances across a biological membrane.
 It may be a symport or antiport depending on the direction of movement of the two substances.
 If both move in the same direction it is a symport type of coupled transport. Conversely, if their movements are in
opposite directions it is called antiport.
 Secondary active transport, or coupled transport, is not coupled to ATP. Electrochemical potential is built up by
pumping ions into or out of the cell. This potential can provide energy for metabolism. For example, sodium ions
are transported across the plasma membrane, and the electrochemical gradient powers active transport of another
ion or molecule. Hydrogen pumps build up an electrochemical gradient of H+ ions in cells to power cellular
respiration.
 Example of active transport mechanism (Sodium – Potassium Pump)
Transporters of active transport
In primary active transport, membrane protein transporters include the ion pumps, ion channels, and ATPases. ATPases,
in particular, include the P-type ATPases, such as sodium potassium pump, calcium pump, and proton pump, F-ATPases,
such as mitochondrial ATP synthase, chloroplast ATP synthase, and V-ATPases, such as vacuolar ATPase. ATP-binding
cassette transporters (ABC transporters), e.g. MDR, CFTR, are also involved in primary active transport. All of them are
ATP-driven.
In secondary active transport, the transporters are the antiporters and the symporters. An example of an antiporter is the
sodium-calcium exchanger in the membranes of cardiac muscle cells. This antiporter allows three Na+ ions to move down
the concentration gradient into the cell and then actively transport one Ca+ ion out of the cell. (1) The movements of Na+
ions and Ca+ ion are in opposite direction. As for symport mechanism, an example is the glucose symporter SGLT1 found
in the internal lining of the small intestine, the heart, the brain, and the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each
nephron.(2, 3, 4, 5) This transporter moves one glucose (or galactose) molecule along with the two Na+ ions into the
cell.Biological importance

Biological Importance
Active transport is essential in multifarious biological processes. It is employed in many biochemical pathways (e.g.
proton gradient generation in chloroplasts and chemiosynthesis in mitochondria). In plants, ABC transporter PhABCG1 is
responsible for the active transport of volatile organic compounds across the plasma membrane. This is vital to plants
since volatile organic compounds entice pollinators and seed-dispersal organisms. Plants also use ABC transporters,
particularly NtPDR1, to actively transport antimicrobial metabolites. Plants also employ active transport when they absorb
nutrients (e.g. chlorine and nitrates) from the soil into the vacuole. In humans and animals, active transport is employed in
many metabolic activities, e.g. glucose absorption.

Bulk Transport/Vesicle-mediated transport

 A cellular transport process in which transported substances (large molecules) are moved in membrane-bounded
vesicles; transported substances are enclosed in the vesicle lumen or located in the vesicle membrane.
 This process works both ways, required materials can go in and out of the cell

Endocytosis
 is a cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell (large molecules like complex carbohydrates and
lipids)
 Phagocytosis – intake of solid substance
 Pinocytosis – intake of liquid substance
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis – occurs wherein the molecule can bind to the surface of the membrane
 Clathrin – specialized protein in the internal layer of the membrane which serves as a coating
Exocytosis
 is the process of moving materials from within a cell to the exterior of the cell.
 Type of active transport usually applies to enzymes and hormones

Name Direction Requirement Examples

Energy not required Diffusion Toward lower Concentration Lipid-soluble
concentration gradient molecules and gases
Facilitated Transport Toward lower Channels or carrier Some sugars, amino
concentration and concentration acids, sodium ions.
gradient Chloride ions
Energy required Active Transport Toward higher Carrier and ATP Sugars, amino acids
concentration and ions
Bulk Transport Toward outside or Vesicle utilization Macromolecules
inside