cell biology

CELL CYLE
 CELL CYCLE
• The series of events from the time a cell is produced to
until it completes mitosis and produce new cells in a
process called cell cycle.
• PHASES:
• Basically , it consists of two phases;
i. M Phase
• it is also called mitotic phase and it is
relatively a short period of cell cycle.
• Basically, cell division occurs during this phase that
consists of nuclear division( karyokinesis) followed by
cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) .
 CELL CYCLE
• The DNA is replicated in the preceding S phase; the two copies of each
replicated chromosome (called sister chromatids) remain glued
together by cohesions.
ii. Interphase:
is relatively a longer period of cell cycle in which a cell
prepares itself for cell division and cell`s metabolic activity is very
high as it performs various functions. Basically, 90% period of cell
cycle consists of interphase.
Classification;
It is classified in three phases
i. G1 phase ( gap 1 phase)
ii. S phase ( synthesis phase)
iii. G2 phase (gap 2 phase)
 CELL CYCLE
• Misleadingly, interphase is also called resting phase.
• It is a period of great chemical activity.
• G1 phase:

After its production, a cell starts its cell cycle in G1 phase. Basically, in
this phase cell;
• Normally grows in size
• Increases its supply of proteins
• Increases its number of organelles (mitochondria and ribosomes
etc.)and DNA base units are accumulated for the DNA synthesis.
• This phase is also marked by the synthesis of enzymes that is
required in the next phase i.e. in S phase for the duplication of
chromosomes.
 Cell cycle
S phase: (synthesis phase)
In this process, DNA is synthesized, cell duplicates its
chromosomes and as result each chromosome has two
sister chromatids.
G2 Phase( Pre. Mitotic phase):
In this phase cell prepares proteins that are essential for;
 mitosis(i.e., energy storage for chromosome movement),
 RNA and microtubule subunit and
 mainly for the production of spindle fibres.
If protein production is stopped during G2 phase, it prevents
cell to enter the mitosis
 Cell cycle
• After the G2 phase of the interphase, cell
enters the division phase i.e. M phase. It is
characterized by the mitosis in which a cell
dividers into two daughter cells.
• Cells that have stopped division temporary or
permanently are said to be in quiescence
phase , called G0 phase.
 Cell cycle
• G0 phase
• In multicellular eukaryotes cells enter the G0 phase
and stop Dividing. Some cells remain in G0 phase
for indefinite period e.g. nerve cells or neurons
• Some cells enter G0 phase semi-permanently e.g.
cells of liver and kidney
• Many cells do not enter G0 phase and continue to
divide throughout organism`s life e.g. epithelial
cells
 Cell cycle
Length of phases:
Length of each phase is variable ;
• In human cell, average cell cycle is about 24 hours,
• mitosis take 30 minutes,
• G1 (9 hours),
• the S phase 10 hours, and
• G2 (4.5 hours),
• whereas full cell cycle is only 90 minutes
 cell cycle
In 1880, a German biologist Walther Fleming observed that in the dividing
cell, nucleus passes through a series of changes, called mitosis.
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which a cell divides into two daughter
cells and each daughter cell contains same number of chromosomes as
were present in the parent cell.
Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells. In multicellular organisms, somatic
cells undergo mitosis.
Prokaryotic cells undergo similar process like mitosis called binary
fission( asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two new
bodies. In the process of binary fission, an organism duplicates its
genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then divides into
two parts (cytokinesis), with each new organism receiving one copy of
DNA).
 MITOSIS
The process of mitosis is complex as well as highly
regulated. There are 2 major phases i.e.
 Division of nucleus called karyokinesis and
 Division of cytoplasm called cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis
The division of nucleus is further divide into 4 phases i.e.
i. Prophase
ii. Metaphase
iii. Anaphase and
iv. Telophase
 Mitosis ( karyokinesis)
At the beginning of the process in an animal cell, the partition
of the Centriole takes place that has been duplicated during
interphase but present in the same centrosome.
Early in the mitosis ;
 the two pair of the Centrioles separate ,
 ,migrate towards the opposite side of the nucleus and ,
 establishing the bipolarity of the dividing cells .
Three sets of the microtubules arise from the each pair of the
Centrioles. One set the astral microtubule, radiate outward
and form aster, other two sets of microtubule compose the
spindle.
 Mitosis (karyokinesis)
• The kinetochore microtubules attach to chromosomes at
kinetochore and polar microtubules do not interact the
chromosomes but instead interdigitate with polar
microtubules from opposite side. These microtubules are
composed of protein tubulin and traces of RNA.
• The specialized microtubule structure including aster
and spindle is called mitotic apparatus.
• This is larger than nucleus , and is designed to attach and
capture chromosomes, aligning them and finally
separating them so that equal distribution of
chromosomes is ensured.
 Mitosis (karyokinesis)
Prophase:
During interphase (also called as non dividing phase) of the cell cycle
the chromosomes are not visible even with the electron
microscope , but using histologic stains (Histological staining is used
to highlight important features of the tissue as well as to
differentiate structural elements of the tissue by their color and/or
staining intensity. The preferred stains for DNA are Feulgen staining
(which reacts with deoxyribose) and methyl green-pyronine
staining (which results from the reaction of the phosphate groups
with the dye at acidic pH. ) for DNA , a network of fine threads can
be visualized,. This network is called chromatin.
Normally, the genetic material in nucleus is in loose thread like form
called chromatin.
 Mitosis ( karyokinesis)
Prophase:
At the onset of prophase, chromatin condenses into highly
ordered structure called chromosomes. Since the genetic
material has already been is duplicated earlier in S phase, so
each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids, bound
together at same centromere. Each chromosome also has
kinetochore at the centromere.
Kinetochore is a complex protein structure that is a point where
spindle fibers are attached.
Prokaryotes do not have proper nucleus so they do not form
spindles during division that`s why division is not called as
mitosis.
 Mitosis (karyokinesis)
Prophase:
There are two Centrioles (collectively called a centrosome) close to the
nucleus. Each Centriole duplicates thus two daughter centrosomes are
formed. Both centrosomes migrate towards the opposite poles of the
cell. Here they give rise to microtubules by joining two tubulin proteins
present in cytoplasm. The microtubules thus formed are called spindle
fibers.
Complete set of spindle fibers are called as mitotic spindles.
by this time, nucleolus and nuclear envelope have degraded or
disappeared and spindle fibers have invaded the central space.
In highly vacuolated plant cells , nucleus has to migrate to the centre before
prophase. Centrioles are not present in plant cells. Therefore, spindle
fibers are formed by the aggregation of the tubulin proteins on the
surface of nuclear envelope during prophase.
 Mitosis (karyokinesis)
Metaphase:
When spindle fibers have gown to sufficient length,
some spindle fibers known as kinetochore fibers
attach with the kinetochore of the chromosomes.
Two kinetochore fibers from the opposite poles
attach with each chromosome. Chromosomes
arrange themselves along with the equator of the
cell forming metaphase plate.
A number of other fibers (non kinetochore fibers) from
the opposite centrosome attach with each other.
 Mitosis (karyokinesis)
Anaphase:
When a kinetochore spindle fiber connects with kinetochore of
the chromosome, it starts to pull towards the originating
centrosomes. This pulling force divides the sister chromatids of
chromosomes and they become separate. Sister chromatids
are now sister chromosomes and they pull apart towards their
respective centrosomes.
The other ( non-kinetochore) fibers also elongate. At the end of
anaphase, cell have succeeded to separate the identical copies
of chromosomes into groups at opposite poles.
It is the most crucial phase of mitosis , which ensures the equal
distribution chromatids in the daughter cells.
 Mitosis (karyokinesis)
• Telophase:
• This is the reversal of prophase. In this phase a
new nuclear envelope forms around the both
separated sets of chromosome. Both sets of
chromosomes are now surrounded by the
new nuclear envelopes, now unfold back into
become chromatin again. Nuclear division is
completed but cell division yet have one more
step to complete.
 Mitosis (cytokinesis)
• Division of cytoplasm is cytokinesis. In an animal cell, cytokinesis
occurs by a process known as cleavage. A cleavage furrow
develops where metaphase plate used to be. This furrow further
deepens and eventually pinches the parent cell into two daughter
cells.
• Cytokinesis in plant cells occurs differently. Vesicles derived from
the Golgi apparatus move to the middle of cell and fuse to form a
membrane-bounded disc called cell plate or phragmoplast. The
plate grows outward and more vesicles fuse with it. Finally,
membranes of cell plate fuse with plasma membrane and its
contents join the parental cell wall. The result is two daughter
cells, each bounded by its own plasma membrane and cell wall
 cytokinesis
• During late telophase astral microtubules send
signals to the equatorial regions of the cell,
where actin and myosin are activated which form
contractile ring, followed by cleavage furrow.
• And in plant cells basically vesicles originate
actually during metaphase.
• Moreover, plant cell shape does not change
more as compared to an animal cell because
plant cell is surrounded by a rigid cell wall.
Importance/significance of mitosis
• Importance of mitosis is the maintenance of chromosomal set
i.e. each daughter cell receives chromosomes that are a like in
composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of
parent cell.
• Following are the occasions in the lives of organisms where
mitosis happens.
 Development and growth:
The number of cells within an organism increase by mitosis. This
is the basis of the development of a multicellular body from a
single cell i.e. zygote and also the basis of the growth of
multicellular body
 Importance/significance of mitosis
 Cell replacement
In some parts of body, e.g. skin and digestive tract, cells are
constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones. New cells
are formed by mitosis and so are exact copies of the cells
being replaced. Similarly, red blood cells have short life span
(about 4 months) and new red blood cells are formed by
mitosis.
 Regeneration:
Some organisms can regenerate parts of their bodies. The
production of new cells is achieved by mitosis. For example;
sea star regenerates its lost arm through mitosis.
Importance/significance of mitosis
 Asexual reproduction:
Some organisms produce genetically similar offspring through
asexual reproduction. Mitosis is a mean of asexual
reproduction. For example; hydra reproduces asexually by
budding. The cells at the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and
form a mass called bud. Mitosis continues in the cells of bud
and it grows into a new individual. The same division happens
during asexual reproduction (vegetative propagation) in plants
 Errors in mitosis
• Errors in the control of mitosis may cause cancer. All cells have
genes that control the timing and number of mitosis.
Sometimes mutations occur in such genes and cells continue
to divide. It results in growths of abnormal cells called tumors.
As long as these tumors remain in their original location, they
are called benign tumours.
• But if they invade other tissues, they are called malignant
(cancerous) tumors and their cells are called cancer cells. Such
tumors can send cancer cells to other parts in body where
new tumors may form. This phenomenon is called metastasis
(spreading of disease).