INTRODUCTION

Hereditery characters are located in the macromolecules called

DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) located in the chromosomes.Therefore,it is the
behavior of the chromosomes during cell division which should govern the
pattern of inheritance.
Since a cell has to maintain continuity from one generation to another,a cell has
to divide and produce daughter cells which are similar to each other and should
also resemble the parent cell.However,in cell divisions taking place in sex cells,the
daughter cells my differ from eachother and also from the parent cell,but they
would still have the most of the essential features in common.

cell division:
AMITOSIS: also called as direct cell division or amitotic cell division or fission or
very simple division.
The term amitosis was given by Flemming.
It is common among unicellular animals like protozoans,certain fungi such as
yeast and bacteria.
During the process the nucleus elongates and becomes dumb-bell shaped.A
constriction in the middle of nucleus is produced which deepens and ultimately it
is broken into two daughter nuclei.
Simultaneously,splitting of cytoplasm and cell membrane is followed.The splitted
cytoplasm surrounds the daughter nucleus,and grows into a new individual.
MITOSIS: Meant for multiplication of cell number
MEIOSIS: Which helps in alteration of generations
NOTE:Meiotic division always reduces the chromosome number to half,which is
restored to normal diploid number at the time of zygote formation.
 MITOSIS

Discovery was believed to be done by otto Butschli

Term was given by Walter Flemming
While details were worked out by Schneider
Mitosis(mitos=thread) is a greek word which basically refers the thread like
appearance of chromosome in early cell division.
It is an ongoing process that with each division creates two exact genetic replicas
of the parent cell they are derived from.

Significance of mitosis:
1)It is responsible for the growth of your body
2)It repairs the damage and injury your body sustains
3)Maintains your body by producing new cells to replace those that undergo
programmed cell death(apoptosis).

number of chromosomes present as homologous pairs in nuclei is called DIPLOID

NUMBER.The diploid number varies among species so it is identified
nonspecifically as 2n.The value n represents the Haploid number.
For example if somatic cell nuclei contain 46 chromosomes each,in 23
homologous pairs the diploid number is 46.
STAGES OF CELL CYCLE:
In each cell division,two important phases are recognized:
Karyokinesis:Nuclear division
Mphase:a short segment of the cell cycle during which cells divide.
Interphase:longer period between one Mphase and the next.
It consists of three successive stages:
G1:cell expresses its genetic information.
S:Replicates its chromososmes.
G2:Prepares for entry into Mphase.
Cytokinesis:division of cytoplasm

INTERPHASE
Prior to the entry into the actual satges of mitotic cell division,nucleus is present
in a resting stage called interphase.
The nucleus appears as a dark staining body, the nucleolus being pronounced and
the chromatids while showing minimum degree of condensation or coiling remain
dispersed in the nuclear sap.
Infact,interphase is the most active stage for the nucleus where it controls the
synthesis of different types of enzymes to regulate metabolic processes and also
it undergoes the process of nucleic material(DNA) duplication.
G1(GAP PHASE):cells actively transcribe and translate all the protein products
necessary for normal cellular structure and function.Gene expression occurs
throughout the rest of the cell cycle as well,but the process is most active during
this stage.As they approach the end of G1,cell follow one of the two alternative
paths.most cells enter the S PHASE,or SYNTHESIS PHASE during which DNA
replication takes place.on the otherhand a small subset of specialized cells
transition from G1 into a nondividing state called G0(a kind of semiperpetual G1
like state in which cells express their genetic information and carry out normal
functions but do not progress through the cellcycle.
S PHASE OR SYNTHESIS PHASE:DNA replication takes place during S phase and
results in doubling of the amount of DNA in each nucleus and the creation of two
sister chromatids for each chromosome.
G2(GAP 2):Cell prepares for cell division.

Besides interphase,there are different stages in the mitosis(MPhase):

PROPHASE
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
The centromere is a specialized DNA sequence on each chromosome and its
location is identified as a constriction where the sister chromatids-the two copies
of that were duplicated in the S phase are joined together.
Centromeric DNA sequence binds a specialized protein complex called the
Kinetochore that facilitates chromosome division in Mphase.
Characteristics of prophase:

1)it is the largest stage of the cell division

2)at the beginning of the stage,chromosomes appear as fine,thread-like uncoiled
structure that become coiled,shortened and more thickened and distinct in late
prophase(chromosome condensation)
3)In the mid-prophase,each chromosome splits longitudinally.This splitting is the
result of DNA duplication during S phase of cell cycle.
4)The two splitted parts of the chromosome remain held together by a
centromere.
5)Splitted chromosome now composed of two sister chromatids and duplicate
sets of the gene.
6)By the end of prophase,the nucleoli and nuclear envelope dissapear and the
mic rotubules form the bipolar spindles
7)Chromosomes now move towars the equator(middle plate)of the spindle in the
late prophase(also called as prometaphase)
{Note :coiling occurs in between these sister chromatids which may be of two
levels-larger ones called somatic coils and smaller ones called minor coils.
In most cases, the pattern of coiling is plectonemic type in which chromatids are
twisted about eachother relationally so much that is not easy to separate them.
In few cases paranemic coiling may also be seen}
Prometaphase:
Characterised by disintegration of nuclear membrane(envelope)and
appearanceof microtubules(or spindle fibres)which attach to the kinetochore of
the centromere.microtubules can interact with opossite microtubules.

Characteristics of metaphase:
1)Absence of nucleolus
2)Diasapearance of nuclear membrane (the nuclear membrane breaks down into
components into endoplasmic reticulum)
3)Arrangement of duplicated chromosomes on the imaginary equitorial plate(a
single plane almost in the midlle of the spindle)
4)Chromosomes are most condensed,thickened and shortest.
5)presence of spindle apparatus, and chromosomes are attached to the spindle
fibres.
6)absence of relational coiling between sister chromatids.
7)centromeres lie along the equitorial plate and chromosomal arms facing
towards respective poles.
Characteristics of anaphase:
1)Sepeartion of sister chromatids as centromere divides.
2)each sister chromatid, now called daughter chromosome,passes to the opposite
poles of the spindle(due to contraction of spindle fibres)
3)Centromeres now move towards poles withdrawing daughter chromosomes.
4)Chromosomes show different shapes like v-shape=metacentric,J-shape=sub-
metacentricor I-shape=acrocentric according to the position of centromeres in
the chromosomes.
5)Original diploid number of chromosome set is thus maintained in the two
developing daughter nuclei.

Characteristics of telophase:
1)Chromosomes are long,uncoiled and like fine threads.
2)Nucleoli reappear.
3)Nuclear membrane is re-organised around each of the two groups of
chromosomes.
4)Spindle fibres disappear.
5)As a result two daughter nuclei are formed.
Cytokinesis:
the division of cytoplasm is called as cytokinesis.
The pattern of cytokinesis differs in plants and anmals
In animals: an animal cell is devoid of cell wall ,rather surrounded only by cell
membrane and is therfore more flexible.
During cytokinesis,a circular constriction appears at the equator which deepens
on all sides and ultimately sepearting two daughter cells.
This process may be called cytokinesis forming cell furrow.
In plants:cell wall is rigid and during cytokinesis a rigid plate is laid down in the
centre which is completed towards the periphery.
The formation of cell plate occurs with the deposition of certain cytplasmic
droplets or microspheres which is soon followed by the deposition of materials of
primary and secondary walls.
This process is also called cytokinesis by cell plate formation.
Chromosome distribution:
Centromeres are the source of spindle fibre microtubules.They are polymers of
tubulin protein subunits that elongate by the addition of tubulin subunits and
shortened by removal of tubulin subunits.Microtubules are polar, they have
“minus”(-)end anchored at the centrosome and the “plus”(+)end that grows
away from the centrosome.
secialized proteins called motor proteins,move chromosomes and other cell
structures along microtubules by using the chemical energy.
The spindle fibres emanate from centrosomes in a 360 ͦ pattern identified as the
Aster.
Three kinds of microtubules are identified in cells:
1)kinetechore microtubules:embedded in the protein complex called kinetochore
that assembles at the centromere of each chromatid.
They are responsible for chromosome movement during cell division.
2)Polar microtubules:contribute to elongation of cell and to the cell stability
during cell division.
3)Astral microtubules:grow toward the membrane of the cell where they attach
and contribute to the cell stability.
 MEIOSIS
It was first discovered and described by Oscar Herting in sea urchins.
The term meiosis was introduced by J.B.Farmer and J.E.S.Moore.
Meiosis consists of two nuclear divisions:
i)Heterotypic division or reductional division
ii)Homotypic divison or second meiotic divison or equational division

A)First meiotic division(heterotypic division):

Since meiosis I segregates homologous chromosomes producing two haploid
cells,i.e.diploid set of chromosomes reduced to haploid set of chromosomes it is
also reffered as reductional division.
It is divided into :
PROPHASE 1
Further divided into 5 sub stages:
a)Leptotene,b)Zygotene,c)Pachytene,d)Diplotene,e)Diakinesis
METAPHASE 1
ANAPHASE 1
TELOPHASE 1

Characteristic features of leptotene:

1)Increase in the volume of nucleus occurs.
2)Chromosomes begin to condense and become visible as interwoven fine
threads.
3)An increased rate of RNAs and protein synthesis occurs.This protein is used in
the condensation and structural make up of the chromosomes.
4)Nucleolus increases in volume and remains distinctly visible.
Characteristic features of zygotene:
1)pairing of homologous chromosomes or synapses takes place(the two
homologous chromosomes pair lenghtwise with eachother in a zipper-like fashion
starting from centromere or at the chromosome ends).
Of the two syneptic chromosomes, one is paternal and other is
maternal,collectively these arecalled bivalents.
Since each chromosome consists of two chromatids,a bivalent will have four
chromatids.so its also referred to as tetrads.
2)little amount of DNA(about 0.3percent)replication,which has not replicated
during S phase of cell cycle,occurs.thid DNA replication is called zygotene DNA
replication.
3)synthesis of specific nuclear proteins continues.
4)A synaptenemal complex is developed.
5)Process of chromosomal condensation continues.
6)Nucleus further increases in volume.

Characteristics of pachytene stage:

1)As the process of chromosomal condensation continues,these become
relatively shorter and thicker.The process facilitates chromosomal pairing.
2)Chromosomes appear half in number due to formation of synaptinemal
complex and their pairing.
3)paired homologous chromosomes are now called bivalents.
4)each chromosomes completes its longitudinal splitting,thereby each bivalent
has two paired chromosomes and four chromatids.(two in each chromosome)
5)the 4strand stage is reffered to as tetravalent,i.e.paired chromosomes with four
chromatids,two in each chromosome.
6)at this stage,there are reciprocal exchanges of segments(crossing over)between
homologous non-sister chromatids.
7)points of such exchanges form chiasmata.each chiasmata represents the
physical result of crossing over.
8)process of crossing over is giving rise to intra-chromosomal genetic
recombination.
9)the nucleolus still persists.

Diplotene:
It is characterised by the seperation of homologous chromosomes from one
another which begins from the centromere to the ends.This process is called
terminalisation.
The separation is not complete as the two homologous chromosomes remain
held together at certain points along the length.such point of contact between
the two homologous chromosomes are called chiasmata(which represents the
actual crossing over)
Nucleolus and nuclear membrane begin to disorganise.

Diakinesis:
1)the chromosome condensation is maximum and nearly complete.
2)The chiasmata terminalisation is complete.
3)The paired homologous chromosomes are well spread throughout of the cell.
4)Process of chromosomal spreading shows a tendency to lie these at the
periphery towards nuclear envelope.
5)The nucleolus normally disappears(or withdrawn within chromosomes)and the
nuclear membrane is disrupted.
Metaphase 1
The characteristic features of metaphase 1 are:
1)The paired chromosomes line up on the equatorial plate(or metaphase plate)by
the movements, the process being referred to as congression.(among many
insects,the larger chromosomes lie near the rim of the circular plate while smaller
ones lie in the middle.The specific organisation is ascribed to unknown “attractive
forces”operating between different chromosomes.
Some earlier works such as Sutton,Gross, and wilson observed by the presence of
chromosome-to-chromosome connectives in certain cases.
2)Spindle fibres get organised and the chromosomal spindle fibres attach to the
kinetochores of the centromeres,whereas others manage to collectively form the
spindle with two opposite poles.
3)Nucleolus and nuclear membrane diaappear.
4)Bivalents are genetically recombined,and balanced.

Anaphase 1
Characterised by the movement of chromosomes from equitorial plate to the
poles but chromosomes of meiosis are different in nature.
The sister chromatids donot separate because centromere doesnot divide and
these go to the same pole(unlike mitosis)
Since there is no seperation of sister chromatids, its called non-disjunctional
division.
As a result half of the chromosomes of a nucleus would go to one pole and rest
half to the other,i.e. reductional division.
At this stage,chromosomes appear of different shapes(V,L,J,or X
shaped)depending on the position of the centromere.

Telophase 1
The chromosomes elongate by loosening of the coils.
The nucleolus and the nuclear membrane reappear.
However cytokinesis may or maynot occur at this stage and there may be two
cells or a cell with two nuclei and a common cytoplasm.
If the cell wall is formed its called successive division and if not its simultaneous
division.
Interkinesis:
The formed haploid nuclei undergo a short resting stage which occurs in between
telophase I and prophase II.
It is also called as interphase,is either very short or may be entirely absent.

Second meiotic division(homotypic division):

It’s a simple mitotic division and therefore may be called meiotic mitotic.
The stages may be called as prophase II,metaphase II,anaphase II,telophase II.
Chromosomes are already double,i.e. each one has two sister chromatids with a
single functional centromere.
They arrange on metaphasic plate where centromeres split.
With the help of spindle fibres,these chromosomes begin to move towards the
two poles(anaphase II)
Simultaneously telophase II is soon followed by cytokinesis which give rise to four
haploid cells.

Significance of meiosis:
It ensures the maintenance of the same chromosome number,characteristics of
species,from generation to generation.
Due to crossing over,meiosis leads to formation of four daughter cells differing
slightly from one another,and also from the parent cell in their genetic
constitution. Thus meiosis results in variation of genetic characters in the
offsprings(which is important for the evolution).

Cell cycle control

A common mechanism for this monitoring is carried out by protein complexes
that join a protein kinase with a second protein known as cyclin protein.
Protein kinases catalyze protein phosphorylation which changes the conformation
target proteins and can either activate or inactivate the target protein.
Cyclin proteins,the protein kinase components of these complexes are activated
only when they are associated with a cyclin,the the protein kinases are called as
cyclin dependent kinases or Cdks.
Cyclin B joins together with a Cdk known as Cdk1 to form the cyclin B-Cdk1
complex that is required to phosphorylate numerous proteins required to initiate
M phase of the cell cycle
Cdk2 joins with cyclin E to form cyclin E-Cdk2 complex that is active at the G1-S
checkpoint.
Separetely Cdk2 joins with cyclin A to form cyclin A- Cdk2 that is active at the
G2-S checkpoint.
Similarly Cyclin D1-Cdk4 ia active at G1-S checkpoint and Cycklin D2-Cdk4 is active
later in the cell cycle.
One prominent target of cyclin D1-Cdk4 is the retinoblastoma protein(pRB) that is
produced by the retinoblastoma 1(RB1) gene.In normal cells,pRB binda a
transcription activator protein known as E2F, and together the PRB-E2F complex
blocks cell cycle progression from G1-S phase.
The Cyclin D1-Cdk4 complex phosphorylates pRB, causing it to release E2F.free
E2F binds to DNA and activates the transcription of several genes that produce
proteins essential in S phase.
In otherwords,active cyclin D1-Cdk4 allows the cell to pass through G1 checkpoint
and enter S phase by releasing E2F that is otherwise bound to unphosphorylated
RB (which acts as a break on the cell cycle halting it at G1 checkpoint preventing
progression to S phase.)