Cell division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more
daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. In
eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division: a vegetative division,
whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell (mitosis), and
a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the
daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis). Meiosis
results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication
followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first
division, and sister chromatids are separated in the second division. Both of these
cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in
their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common
ancestor.

Prokaryotes (bacteria) undergo a vegetative cell division known as binary fission,

where their genetic material is segregated equally into two daughter cells. All cell
divisions, regardless of organism, are preceded by a single round of DNA
replication.

For simple unicellular microorganisms such as the amoeba, one cell division is
equivalent to reproduction – an entire new organism is created. On a larger scale,
mitotic cell division can create progeny from multicellular organisms, such as
plants that grow from cuttings. Mitotic cell division enables sexually reproducing
organisms to develop from the one-celled zygote, which itself was produced by
meiotic cell division from gametes. After growth, cell division by mitosis allows for
continual construction and repair of the organism. The human body experiences
about 10 quadrillion cell divisions in a lifetime.

The primary concern of cell division is the maintenance of the original cell's
genome. Before division can occur, the genomic information that is stored in
chromosomes must be replicated, and the duplicated genome must be separated
cleanly between cells. A great deal of cellular infrastructure is involved in keeping
genomic information consistent between generations.

Interphase

Interphase is the process a cell must go through mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis.
Interphase consists of three main stages: G1, S, and G2. G1 is a time of growth for
the cell where specialized cellular functions occur in order to prepare the cell for
DNA Replication. There are checkpoints during interphase that allow the cell to be
either progressed or denied further development. In S phase, the chromosomes
are replicated in order for the genetic content to be maintained. During G2, the
cell undergoes the final stages of growth before it enters the M phase, where
spindles are synthesized. The M phase, can be either mitosis or meiosis
depending on the type of cell. Germ cells, or gametes, undergo meiosis, while
somatic cells will undergo mitosis. After the cell proceeds successfully through the
M phase, it may then undergo cell division through cytokinesis. The control of
each checkpoint is controlled by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases. The
progression of interphase is the result of the increased amount of cyclin. As the
amount of cyclin increases, more and more cyclin dependent kinases attach to
cyclin signaling the cell further into interphase. The peak of the cyclin attached to
the cyclin dependent kinases this system pushes the cell out of interphase and
into the M phase, where mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis occur. There are three
transition checkpoints the cell goes through before entering the M phase. The
most important being the G1-S transition checkpoint. If the cell does not pass this
phase, then the cell will most likely not go through the rest of the cell division
cycle.

Prophase

Prophase is the first stage of division. The nuclear envelope is broken down, long
strands of chromatin condense to form shorter more visible strands called
chromosomes, the nucleolus disappears, and microtubules attach to the
chromosomes at the kinetochores present in the centromere. Microtubules
associated with the alignment and separation of chromosomes are referred to as
the spindle and spindle fibers. Chromosomes will also be visible under a
microscope and will be connected at the centromere. During this condensation
and alignment period, homologous [chromosomes cross] over.

Metaphase

In metaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene themselves on the

metaphase plate (or equatorial plate), an imaginary line that is equidistant from
the two centrosome poles. Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell by
MTOCs (microtubule organizing center) by pushing and pulling on centromeres of
both chromatids which causes the chromosome to move to the center. The
chromosomes are still condensing and are currently at one step away from being
the most coiled and condensed they will be. Spindle fibres have already
connected to the kinetochores. At this point, the chromosomes are ready to split
into opposite poles of the cell towards the spindle to which they are connected.

Anaphase

Anaphase is a very short stage of the cell cycle and occurs after the chromosomes
align at the mitotic plate. After the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell,
the spindle fibers will pull them apart. The chromosomes are split apart as the
sister chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell. While the sister chromatids
are being pulled apart cell, and plasma gets elongated from non-kinetochore
microtubules.

Telophase
Telophase is the last stage of the cell cycle.A cleavage furrow splits the cell in two.
These two cells from around the chromatin at the two poles of the cell. Two
nuclear membranes begin to reform and the chromatin begin to unwind.

Variants

Image of the mitotic spindle in a human cell showing microtubules in green,

chromosomes (DNA) in blue, and kinetochores in red.

Cells are broadly classified into two main categories: simple, non-nucleated
prokaryotic cells, and complex, nucleated eukaryotic cells. Owing to their
structural differences, eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells do not divide in the same
way. Also, the pattern of cell division that transforms eukaryotic stem cells into
gametes (sperm cells in males or egg cells in females), termed meiosis, is different
from that of the division of somatic cells in the body. Cell division over 42. The
cells were directly imaged in the cell culture vessel, using non-invasive
quantitative phase contrast time-lapse microscopy.

Degradation

Multicellular organisms replace worn-out cells through cell division. In some

animals, however, cell division eventually halts. In humans this occurs, on
average, after 52 divisions, known as the Hayflick limit. The cell is then referred to
as senescent. Cells stop dividing because the telomeres, protective bits of DNA on
the end of a chromosome required for replication, shorten with each copy,
eventually being consumed.[citation needed] Cancer cells, on the other hand, are
not thought to degrade in this way, if at all. An enzyme called telomerase, present
in large quantities in cancerous cells, rebuilds the telomeres, allowing division to
continue indefinitely.