Growth and Division

of the Cell
The life cycle of individual organisms include
the stages of initiation, growth, and death.
Individual cell also have a life cycle, the cell
cycle. Cells are initiated by division of mother
cell, grow for a period, and usually cease to
exist by dividing and producing daughter cells.
This type of cell cycle is common. But as parts
of a plant reach their final form, most cells
stop dividing (cell cycle arrest) and entered an
extended period of growth during which they
differentiate and mature.
The cell cycle consist of division and growth
phases.
a) The cell has grown and ready for division.
b) First the nucleus divides.
c) Then the cytoplasm is divided by formation of
a new wall.
d) The new cell enter a new cell cycle by
growing.
e) Then one divides again, but the other may
begin to differentiate.
Growth phase of
the cell cycle
G1 Phase
The first stage after division, the
cell is recovering and conducting
most of its normal metabolism.
In single celled such as some
algae the cell cycle maybe as
brief as a several hours. In
general G1 is the longest part of
the cell cycle.
S Phase
The genes in the nucleus are replicated. A
gene is a polymer of nucleotides, and each
gene has a unique sequence of nucleotides. It
has been estimated that many higher plants
and animals need about 100,000 types of
genes to store all the information required to
make the proper enzymes, structural proteins
and hormones necessary for the organism’s
life. The whole complex of genes for an
organism is it’s Genome.
Before S phase, each
chromosome has one
chromatic and one copy of
each gene.
After replication in S phase,
each chromosome has two
chromatids and two copies of
each gene.
Thousands of genes can be attached
together in a linear sequence, the
whole structure is a chromosome.
Although it might seem reasonable
for all genes to link together in a
single chromosome. Only a few
plants have as few or two
chromosomes for their genome;
have between 5 and 30
chromosomes.
Common names No. Of chromosomes

Plant of US deserts 2

Onion 8

Corn 10

Rice 12

Humans 23

Potato 24
Even with 20 different chromosomes, an
organism with 100,000 genes would have an
average of 5,000 genes in each chromosome,
resulting in long pieces of DNA that might
break if unprotected. In eukaryotes a special
class of proteins called histones complexes
with DNA and gives it both protection and
structure. Chromosomes have also another
structural feature the centromere which is
usually located near the center of
chromosome.
G2 Phase
Following S Phase, the cell
progresses into G2 phase, during
which cells prepare for division.
This phase usually lasts only 3 to
5 hours. G1, S, and G2 constitute
the interphase portion of the cell
cycle. After G2 division can occur.
Division phase of
the cell cycle
The actual division involves two processes:
1. Division of the nucleus called karyokinesis
(mitosis and meiosis)
2. Division of the protoplasm called
cytokinesis.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a duplication division, and it is the
more common type of karyokinesis. It is the
method that any multicellular organism uses
as it’s body is growing and the number of it’s
cells is increasing. Mitosis is called
duplication division because the nuclear
genes are first copied; then one set of genes
is separated from other and each is packed
into its own nucleus.
Prophase
During Prophase the chromosome
condense. The chromosomes begin to
coil repeatedly becoming shorter and
thicker each time. Condensation
continues until chromosomes 2 to 5𝜇m
long that they simultaneously acted as
microtubules organizing centers and
produce a long set of microtubules, the
spindle, between themselves.
In the spindle, some
microtubules extend from one
pole to the center. Other
microtubules run from a pole to
the centromere. The point of
attachment is a kinetochore.
About 15 to 35 microtubules
attached to each kinetochore.
Metaphase
Once the microtubules attached to
the centromere, they push and pull
on the chromosomes and gradually
move them to the center cell, there
arrangement there is called
Metaphase plate.
Anaphase
Anaphase begins just after the
centromere divides; the spindle
microtubules that run to the
centromere shorten. As
chromosomes at each side get closer
to the end, they are pulled together
into a compact space.
Telophase
As chromosomes approach the end
of the spindle, fragments of nuclear
envelope appear near them,
connect with each other and form
complete nuclear envelope at end
of the cell.
Cytokinesis
The division of protoplasm is much more simpler
than the division of the nucleus. Although it is
necessary for each daughter cells to receive some
of each type of organelle, random distribution of
the organelle in the mother cell usually ensures
this. No matter how the cell is divided, each half
typically contains some mitochondria, some
plastids, some vacuoles, and so on. It is not
necessary for each daughter cells to get exactly
half of each type of organelle.
In plants, cytokinesis involves the
formation of a phragmoplast made up
of short microtubules aligned
parallel to the spindle microtubules.
The phragmoplast forms in the
center of the cell where the
Metaphase plate had been. The
phragmoplast, vesicle and walls are
called cell plate.
Meiosis
Two sex cells (gametes) fuse together
forming zygote which then grow into new
adult. Each gamete contains one complete
set of chromosomes. Nuclei, cells and
organism with one set of chromosomes in
each nucleus are said to be haploid. The
zygote has two complete set so it is diploid.
If the adult were to produce gametes by
mitosis, the gametes would be diploid as well
and the next zygote would be tetraploid with
four sets.
Meiosis occurs only in the
production of reproductive cells,
gametes in animals and some algae
and fungi, and spores in plants. In
seed plants meiosis occurs only in a
few cells in the stamens and
ovaries. Meiosis is never used in the
growth of the body of any
organisms.
Meiosis I
Prophase I
Nucleulos and nuclear membrane break
down, centrioles separate, a spindle
forms, microtubules attached to the
centromere, and become visible.
Leptotene is the stage of meiosis in
which chromosomes are threadlike
shape. At this stage chromosomes
become visible as long, thin
threads.
During zygotene, a remarkable
pairing of chromosome occurs.
Remember that there are two sets
of chromosomes, one from paternal
and one from maternal gamete.
Each chromosome of one set pairs
with equivalent chromosomes
(homologous chromosome) of the
other set, this pairing is called
synapsis.
As chromosomes continue
to condense they become
shorter and thicker, this
stage is pachytene.
After pachytene is diplotene, the
homologous chromosomes begin to
move away from each other but do
not separately completely because
they are held together at their
paired centromeres and at point
(chiasmata) where they appear to
be tangled together.
In the final stage, diakinesis,
homologs continue to separate
and chiasmata are pushed to the
end of the chromosome. The
homologous chromosomes
become to untangled and are
paired only at the centromeres.
Cell division of
prokaryotes
The events mitosis and meiosis occurs only in
eukaryotes. In prokaryotes — bacteria,
cyanobacteria, and archaebacteria — mitosis
and meiosis do not occur and cytokinesis is
much simpler. Cytokinesis occurs by a process
of infurrowing: the plasma membrane pulls
inward and finally pinches in two, although the
contractile mechanism that pulls it inward has
been found yet. The cell cycle of many
bacteria can be short — only 20 minutes under
ideal conditions.