M-phase Cdk (M-Cdk) triggers a cascade of protein phosphorylations that initiate M phase

Introduction to biotechnology

Mitosis is the process of forming (generally) identical daughter cells by replicating and dividing the original chromosomes, in effect making a cellular xerox. Commonly the two processes of cell division are confused. Mitosis deals only with the segregation of the chromosomes and organelles into daughter cells.

In most animal cells, M phase takes only about an hour a small fraction of the total cell-cycle time, which often lasts 12 24 hours. The rest of the cycle is occupied by interphase.

the events of the cell cycle are controlled by the cell-cycle control system. The core of the control system consists of various cyclindependent kinases (Cdks), which are activated in sequence to trigger various steps of the cycle. The Cdks are activated by the binding of cyclin regulatory proteins, as well as by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of the kinase. They are inactivated by various Cdk inhibitory proteins (CKIs) and by the degradation of the cyclin subunits at specific stages of the cycle. The M-phase Cdk (M-Cdk) triggers a cascade of protein phosphorylation that initiates M phase. These phosphorylations are responsible for the many morphological changes that occur during mitosis in animal cells. The chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus reorganize, the cell loosens its adhesions both to other cells and to the extracellular matrix, and the cytoskeleton radically reorganizes to bring about the highly ordered movements that will segregate the replicated chromosomes and divide the cell in two.

Introduction to biotechnology

prophase , )(spindles

prometaphase , ) - (kinetochores

Introduction to biotechnology

Prophase

Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible in the light microscope as chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears. Centrioles begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and fibers extend from the centromeres. Some fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic spindle.

Prometaphase

The nuclear membrane dissolves, marking the beginning of prometaphase. Proteins attach to the centromeres creating the kinetochores. Microtubules attach at the kinetochores and the chromosomes begin moving.

metaphase
) (equator

anaphase
. .

telophase
, ,

Cytokinesis , - : 1. 2. 3.

Introduction to biotechnology

Metaphase

Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell nucleus. This line is referred to as the metaphase plate. This organization helps to ensure that in the next phase, when the chromosomes are separated, each new nucleus will receive one copy of each chromosome.

Anaphase

The paired chromosomes separate at the kinetochores and move to opposite sides of the cell. Motion results from a combination of kinetochore movement along the spindle microtubules and through the physical interaction of polar microtubules.

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Telophase

Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell, and new membranes form around the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes disperse and are no longer visible under the light microscope. The spindle fibers disperse, and cytokinesis or the partitioning of the cell may also begin during this stage.

Cytokinesis

In animal cells, cytokinesis results when a fiber ring composed of a protein called actin around the center of the cell contracts pinching the cell into two daughter cells, each with one nucleus. In plant cells, the rigid wall requires that a cell plate be synthesized between the two daughter cells.

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Motor proteins the future nano smart machines ???

Stem cells

Figure 21-83. The early stages of mouse development. The zona pellucida is a jelly capsule from which the embryo escapes after a few days, allowing it to implant in the wall of the uterus

Transit amplifying cells. Stem cells in many tissues divide only rarely, but give rise to transit amplifying cells daughters committed to differentiation that go through a limited series of more rapid divisions before completing the process. In the example shown here, each stem cell division gives rise in this way to eight terminally differentiated progeny.

Stem cells

Stem cells

The family of connective-tissue cells. Arrows show the interconversions that are thought to occur within the family. For simplicity, the fibroblast is shown as a single cell type, but in fact it is uncertain how many types of fibroblasts exist and whether the differentiation potential of different types is restricted in different ways.

Stem cells

Figure 22-57. Production of differentiated cells from mouse ES cells in culture. ES cells derived from an early mouse embryo can be cultured indefinitely as a monolayer, or allowed to form aggregates called embryoid bodies, in which the cells begin to specialize. Cells from embryoid bodies, cultured in media with different factors added, can then be driven to differentiate in various ways. (Based on E. Fuchs and J.A. Segre, Cell 100:143 155, 2000.)

The defining properties of a stem cell are as follows: 1. It is not itself terminally differentiated (that is, it is not at the end of a pathway of differentiation). 2. It can divide without limit (or at least for the lifetime of the animal). 3. When it divides, each daughter has a choice: it can either remain a stem cell, or it can embark on a course that commits it to terminal differentiation

Introduction to biotechnology

Introduction to biotechnology

Interphase

The cell is engaged in metabolic activity and performing its prepare for mitosis (the next four phases that lead up to and include nuclear division). Chromosomes are not clearly discerned in the nucleus, although a dark spot called the nucleolus may be visible. The cell may contain a pair of centrioles (or microtubule organizing centers in plants) both of which are organizational sites for microtubules.

Introduction to biotechnology

Prophase

Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible in the light microscope as chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears. Centrioles begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and fibers extend from the centromeres. Some fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic spindle.

Prometaphase

The nuclear membrane dissolves, marking the beginning of prometaphase. Proteins attach to the centromeres creating the kinetochores. Microtubules attach at the kinetochores and the chromosomes begin moving.

Introduction to biotechnology
Animal Mitosis -- Review

Interphase

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Interphase