CELLS

Subtopics

The Components of Cells

Cell Division and Death
Cell-cell interactions
Stem Cells and Cell specialization
Viruses and Prions – Not Cells, But Infectious
 THE COMPONENT OF CELLS THREE DOMAINS

 Archaea and bacteria are both

single-celled but they differ in the
sequences of many of their genetic
molecules and in the types of
molecules in their membranes.
 Archaea has a cell membrane known
as pseudopeptidoglycan whereas the
cell membrane which bacteria have
are lipopolysaccharide and
peptidoglycan.
 THE COMPONENT OF CELLS

EUKARYOTES
 Eukaryotes includes single-cell
organisms that have nuclei, as well
as all multicellular organisms. Single-celled organism:
 The plasma membrane of  Yeast
eukaryotes contains phospholipid  Algae
bilayer with proteins and  Amoeba
cholesterol embedded in it. Multicellular organism:
 Plants
 Animals
THE COMPONENT OF CELLS

Chemical constituents of the Cells

 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Lipids
 Nucleic acid
 Enzymes
 Proteome
CELL DIVISION AND DEATH

• Mitosis provide new cells by forming two

cells from one and it occurs in somatic cells.
• Apoptosis the process of programmed cell
death.
Two Stages of Cell Cycle

INTERPHASE MITOSIS
 The Cell Cycle - Interphase

 In G1 phase, the cell resumes

synthesis of proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates.
 A cell can exit the cell cycle from G1 to
G0 for a reason that their
environments lack the necessary
nutrients.
 In S phase, the cell replicates its entire
genome therefore each chromosome
consists of two copies joined at an
area called centromere.
 In G2 phase, it synthesizes more
proteins, organelles and reorganize its
content for mitosis.
 The Cell Cycle – MITOSIS: the cell divides

PROPHASE
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus starts to disappear.
 The chromatin network of interphase starts to become
shorter and thicker due to coiling as well as loss of
water.
 Each chromosome is duplicated and is visible in the form
of a pair of sister chromatids (pairs of identical copies of
DNA joined at a point called the centromere) which
remain attached at a common point called centrosome.
 By the late prophase, chromosomes are visible as thick
rod-like structures and the nuclear membrane and
nucleolus disappears completely.
 The Cell Cycle – MITOSIS: the cell divides

METAPHASE
 Chromosomes become shorter and
thicker.
 Spindle fibers gets attached to the
centromere of the chromosomes.
 All the chromosomes lie at the equatorial
line of the cell.
 The Cell Cycle – MITOSIS: the cell divides

ANAPHASE
 Sister chromatids are pulled towards
opposite direction due to the contraction
of spindle fiber.
 Due to the contraction of the spindle fiber,
the centromere splits longitudinally
resulting the single centromere for each
chromatid, now called chromosomes.
 By the late anaphase, spindle fiber
disappears.
 The Cell Cycle – MITOSIS: the cell divides

TELOPHASE
 During the beginning of telophase, all
chromosomes now starts to uncoil or elongate.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus starts to
appear.
 By the late telophase, nuclear membrane and
nucleolus reappears and chromatin network
starts to appear.
 At the end of telophase, two nuclei in a single
cytoplasmic cell is formed.
 The Cell Cycle – MITOSIS: the cell divides

CYTOKINESIS
 It is the division of cytoplasm
and its contents.
 It takes place in plant cell and
animal cell by cell plate method
and call furrow method
respectively.
 Cytoplasm divides between two
newly formed nuclei then new
daughter plant cells and give
two daughter animal cells.
 Significance of Mitotic cell division

1. Mitotic cell division contributes to the growth of cells and

development of multicellular organisms from unicellular
organism.
2. Old cells are replaced by new cells with the help of mitotic cell
division.
3. The lost body parts in some organisms is regenerated by
mitotic cell division.
4. It helps in vegetative propagation of plants which is utilized in
floriculture and horticulture.
 The Cell Cycle – Apoptosis

APOPTOSIS
 It begins when “death receptor” on the
doomed cell’s membrane receives
signal to die.
 Caspases are activated inside and
snipping apart various cell
components.
 It rounds up and forms bulges called
blebs.
 Nucleus bursts, releasing DNA in a way
that resembles to ladders.
 Phagocyte eliminate the membrane-
bounded pieces of cells.
 CELL-CELL INTERACTIONS: SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION

 Transduction means to change one

form of something into another.
 Molecules on the cell membrane
assess, transmit, and amplify
incoming messages to the cell’s
interior.
 Signal transduction is carried out
by the interaction between
cytoplasmic proteins and proteins
embedded in the cell membrane
that extend from one or both faces.
 CELL-CELL INTERACTIONS: SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION

 In the first step, a receptor binds an

incoming stimulus called the first
messenger.
 The responding receptor contorts in a
way that touches a nearby protein
called regulator.
 Next, the regulator protein activates a
nearby enzyme and the product of this
reaction is called second messenger.
 Second messenger elicits the cell’s
response by activating enzymes.
 Defects in signal transduction
underlie inherit disorders.
CELL-CELL INTERACTIONS: CELLULAR ADHESION

 Cellular adhesion is a precise sequence of interactions among the

proteins that join cells.
 Cellular adhesion molecules or CAMs, help guide white blood to the
injured area.
 CELL-CELL INTERACTIONS: CELLULAR ADHESION
 Selectins attached to the white blood cells, and slow them to a roll by
also binding to carbohydrates on the capillary wall.
 Next, clotting blood, bacteria, or decaying tissues release chemical
attractants that signal white blood cells to stop.
 The integrins which latch into the white blood cells and called adhesion
receptor proteins which extend from the capillary wall at the injury site.
 STEM CELLS AND CELLS SPECIALIZATION

 Stem cells are special human cells that are able to develop
into many different cell types.
 Stem cells are present in the embryo and the fetus, and also
after birth which serve as repositories for growth and cell
replacement to heal injuries.
 Cell differentiation is the process during which young,
immature cells take on individual characteristics and reach
their mature (specialized) form and function.
 A fertilized ovum is the only type
of cell that is totipotent.
 Pluripotent cells are a group of
cells that can maintain an
undifferentiated state indefinitely
and can differentiate into most, if
not all, cells of the body.
 Further development, pluripotent
cells give rise to more restricted
progenitor cells.
 VIRUSES AND PRIONS-NOT CELLS, BUT INFECTIOUS

 A virus is a single or double strand of

nucleic acid wrapped in a protein coat.
 A virus can only reproduce, only if it can
enter a host cell and use its energy
resources and protein synthetic machinery.
 VIRUSES AND PRIONS-NOT CELLS, BUT INFECTIOUS

 Prion (PrPc) is a glycoprotein that naturally

occurs in the brain.
 Prions (PrPsc) is an infectious agent that
stands for proteinaceous infectious particle.
 Prions (PrPsc) are formed when PrP
associates with a foreign pathogenic nucleic
acid
 Prion diseases are rare group of
neurodegenerative disorders caused by
abnormally folded proteins in your brain and
they are transmissible, untreatable, and fatal
brain diseases of mammals.