SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

The sexual organs of plants are flowers. The following diagrams illustrate generalized
structures of flowers.

Generalized Diagrams of Flowers

Flowers have male parts (stamens or androecium) and female parts (carpels or pistil or
gynoecium). The male parts of a flower include the filament and anther while the female
parts include the stigma, style and ovary.
Functions of Flower Parts

Pedicel or Flower Stalk: This part links the flower to the stem and conducts water, nutrients
and hormones between these two parts.
Receptacle: This is the swollen end of the pedicel where other parts of the flower are attached.

Sepals: These are leaf-like structures that enclose the flower in the bud stage and protect it
from desiccation (drying up) and damage by pests and harsh weather conditions. A group of
sepals from the flower is called a calyx

Petals: These are structures that are brightly coloured and scented in insect-pollinated
flowers to attract insects. In some flowers, the petals have nectar guidelines that lead to the
nectaries in the flowers.

Stigma: This is the part where pollen grains are deposited during pollination.

Style: This holds the stigma in position and links it to the ovary. It is also used as a passage for
the pollen grain on its way from the stigma to the ovary through the pollen tube.

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 Ovary: This is the part that makes and contains ovules. It becomes the fruit after fertilization.

Ovule: Ovules contain female gametes and they develop into seeds after fertilization.

Anther: This is where pollen grains are made and stored.

Filament: This supports the anther and supplies it with water and nutrients.

Pollination
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma on the same plant or different
plants of the same species. There are two types of pollination, namely self pollination and
cross pollination. Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
on the same plant while cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther present
on a given plant to a stigma on another plant of the same species.

Agents of pollination
Agents of pollination include mainly insects and wind.

Insect and wind pollinated flowers

Insect-pollinated flowers are also called entomophilous flowers while wind pollinated
flowers are also called anemophilous flowers. The following table compares the structures
present in insect and wind pollinated flowers:

Structure Insect-pollinated flower Wind-pollinated flower

Petals Brightly-coloured, scented, large Dull-coloured, non-scented, small, and

and have nectaries have no nectaries
Anthers Small, firm and enclosed within Large, pendulous and exposed.
petals
Filaments Short and firm Long and dangling outside the flower

Stigmas Short, not feathery and enclosed in Long, feathery and exposed so as to
petals to ensure insects brush against easily trap pollen grains from air
them
Pollen Large, few and sticky Small, numerous and smooth
grains

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The pollen tube and fertilization
After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs water from the stigma and becomes swollen. Then
the pollen tube nucleus (tube nucleus) germinates to form a pollen tube which grows through
the stigma, style and ovary until it reaches the embryo sac inside the ovule. To form the pollen
tube, the pollen tube nucleus secretes enzymes that break down part of the stigma, style and
ovary. Growth of the tube nucleus towards the ovule is guided by chemicals secreted by the
synergids that are found in the ovule. This is an example of positive chemotropism. After
reaching the micropyle (an opening in the wall of the ovule), the tube nucleus disintegrates.

The generative nucleus follows the tube nucleus behind and divides into two haploid cells
called male nuclei (singular=male nucleus). The first male nucleus fuses with the egg cell to
form a diploid zygote which later develops into the embryo. The second male nucleus fuses
with two polar nuclei to form a triploid cell which later develops into the endosperm. The
function of the endosperm is to act as a food storage tissue. This type of fertilization where one
male nucleus fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygote and the other male nucleus fuses
with two polar nuclei to form a triploid cell is called double fertilization.
After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed while the ovary develops into a fruit.

Development of the Pollen Tube

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Fruit Structure
Generalized Structure of a Simple Fruit

Fruit and Seed Dispersal

This refers to the scattering of fruits or seeds from the parent plant to others places. The
advantages of seed dispersal are:
• It reduces competition for light, space, gases and nutrients
• It allows plants to colonize new areas
• It reduces the chances of extinction in case the plants in one location are destroyed
The adaptations of fruits and seeds to their methods/agents of dispersal are discussed below:
(i) Animal-dispersed Seeds
Animal-dispersed seeds have the following characteristics:

• Presence of hooks to cling to the fur of animals e.g. black jack (Bidens pilosa). The
hooks irritate the animal causing it to shake the seeds off some distance away from the
parent plant.

• Succulent (juicy) mesocarps to attract and reward animals e.g. mangoes.

• Brightly coloured epicarps to attract animals to fruits, especially when ripe e.g.
oranges.
• Seeds have hard testas that are resistant to digestive enzymes found in the guts of
animals e.g. guavas.

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 • Scented fruits to attract animals e.g. oranges.
(ii) Wind-dispersed Fruits
Wind-dispersed seeds have the following characteristics:
• ‘Parachute’ of hairs (pappus) formed from sepals after fertilization causes the fruit to
float thereby delaying landing and encouraging dispersal. An example of a seed that has
a pappus is the dandelion seed.

• Wing-like Structures that cause the fruit to float thereby delaying landing and
encouraging dispersal. An example of a seed that has wing-like structures is the
sycamore seed as illustrated in the following diagram.

Wind-dispersed Fruits
(iii) Water-dispersed fruits
Water-dispersed fruits have fibrous pericarps that enable them to float in water e.g.
coconut fruits

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(iv)Self-dispersed fruits (Explosive mechanism of Dispersal)
Such fruits have fruit walls that develop tension and split to scatter seeds when dry. Such pods
(fruit walls) are said to be dehiscent pods. This mechanism of dispersal is common in legume
fruits e.g. beans.

Sexual Reproduction in Frogs

Frogs require water in order to reproduce. This is because their eggs and larval stages are
adapted to obtain their oxygen from water. Mature male frogs attract females for mating by
making croaking sounds. The male mounts the female in water to start the copulation process.
During copulation, the female produces a large number of eggs which are then fertilized by
spermatozoa from the male outside of the female’s body. This is called external fertilization.
Once the eggs have been laid, there is no parental care but they are left to develop on their
own. Each egg contains egg yolk which is rich in food needed for development of the embryo
until it hatches to produce a tadpole. The tadpole moves through water by propelling itself
using a tail and obtains oxygen from water using gills.