General

Biology 2
A study of living organism

Prepared by:

Ms. Princess Jane Juarez, LPT

ORGANISMAL BODY:PLANTS
The body of any plant or animal consists of hundreds to thousands of trillions of cells. These cells become
organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems, each capable of carrying out specialized functions.
A typical plant consists of organs that carry out either vegetative or reproductive functions. Vegetative organs are
those that are concerned with growth and nutrition. Reproductive organs are those involved in reproduction.

Roots
 It grows extensively underground producing many branches.
 It absorbs water and minerals from the soil.
 It has been estimated that a single rye plant has about 14 billion hair cells; the
root hairs would stretch 10, 626 km.
 Monocot root forms a ring, and in the Dicot Root, the xylem is star-shaped.
 It anchors the vascular plant into the soil. It is also the storage of food, mineral,
and other nuitrients that will be needed by the different parts of the plant.
Taproot – main vertical root; it is usually present on the tall and erect plants or trees.
The lateral roots or branch roots is/are usually large that enables the plant to grow taller
and giving more access to favorable light condition.
Primary root- originating in the seed embryo (the first organ to appear when a seed germinates)and directly from the
radicle (subdivision of nerves or veins) of seed embryo.
Crosss section of the Root
Figure 1 Plant Body

Stems
 The main axis of the plant, bear the leaves that will expose them to ample amount of sunlight.
 It is commonly called trunk or bole.
 A node is a point of the stem which leaves or buds grow.
 A bud is an embryonic stem that gives plant the potential for further growth.

Leaves
 Two main parts: the blade and the petiole.
 Blade is the broad, flat part pf the leaf; petiole is a stalk that attaches the blade to the stem.
 Cotyledon or seed leaf is the part of the embryo within the seed of a plant. Cotyledon of a dicot supply
nutrients for seedlings, but in monocot acts as transfer tissue, and the nutrients are obtained from the
endosperm.

Flowers
 It is a specialized reproductive shoots of angiosperm sporophytes.
Parts of the flowers:
1. Petals- visually conspicuous elements serving to attract specific pollinators to the flower.
2. Sepals- defensive organ that encloses and protects the developing reproductive structures.

3. Carpels- ovule-bearing female reproductive organ of flowering plants and is required to ensure its
protection, an efficient fertilization, and the development of diversified types of fruits.

Types Of Carpels

Gynoecium composition Carpel terminology Pistil terminology

 Monocarpous (unicarpellate)
Single carpel A pistil (simple)
gynoecium
Multiple distinct ("unfused") Apocarpous (choricarpous)
Pistils (simple)
carpels gynoecium
Multiple connate ("fused")
Syncarpous gynoecium A pistil (compound)
carpels

Ovary. During development of seed from an ovule following fertilization, the ovary wall surrounding it
enlarges and develops into a fruit wall while ovary makes fruit. After fertilization, (i) The ovule develops into
a seed. (ii) The ovary develops into a fruit.
 The filament is a thin tubular part of the stamen, which extends and supports the pollen sac at the top. The
function of filaments in plants is to carry nutrients to the anther, where the pollen develops.
 Stigma is the topmost part of carpels in the gynoecium of a flower. In all flowering plants, stigma functions as a
receptive tip, which collects pollen grains.
 The anther is the male reproductive organ in seed plants. Its main function is to produce and disperse pollen.
 Petals (collectively called the corolla) are also sterile floral parts that usually function as visually conspicuous
elements serving to attract specific pollinators to the flower.
 The sepal is a defensive organ that encloses and protects the developing reproductive structures.
 Style is the tube-like structure that supports the stigma. A major function of style is to assist the process of
fertilization.

Functions of Plant Organ System

A. Plant Nutrition and Transport
Essential Inorganic Nutrients
 Nutrient is an element or molecule which plays an essential role in organism’s growth and
reproduction.
Transport Mechanism in Plants
 Plants have two different types of “transport tissue”. Xylem transports water and solutes from
the roots to leaves, while phloem transports food from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
Structure of Xylem and Phloem
Xylem contains two types of conducting cells: tracheid and vessel elements.
 Tracheid are elongated narrow tube-like cells with hard thick and lignified walls, large cavity,
and tarped or pointed ends.
 Vessel elements are long and tubular with perforation plates at each end.
In flowering plants, phloem consists of two types of cells: sieve-tube members and companion cells.
 Sieve-tube are the conducting cells of phloem. They are made up of continuous tubular cells
with perforated end walls.
 Companion cells provides proteins to sieve-tube members. It is usually thinner than most other
cell walls.

Figure 2 Structure of Xylem and Phloem

B. Plant Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction in Plants
 Plants reproduce sexually through pollination.
 The chief role of the pollen grain’s coat is to protect the two cells inside of it as they
transported to stigma.
 Fruits. Only flower-bearing plants form seeds in ovaries, and only they can make fruits.
- a mature ovary containing seed, often fleshy tissues that arise from the ovary wall.
- suited to certain dispersal vectors, just as flowers are structurally adopted to certain
pollination vectors.
- A simple fruit developed from a single ovary that can have one or several chambers. A
compound, developed from several groups of ovaries.
Types of Fruits

https://www.backyardnature.net/frt_3grp.htm

Simple
These fruits develop from a single matured ovary in a single flower. Apple, banana, cherry pear, plum, tomato
are few examples of simple fruits.

Aggregate
These fruits develop from a number of matured ovaries formed in a single flower. Individual ovaries are called
“fruitlets.” Blackberry, raspberry, strawberry are few examples of aggregate fruits.

Multiple/Composite
These fruits develop from a complete inflorescence. these are also known as multiple fruits. Composite fruits
are of two types:

 Sorosis: These are found in mulberry, jackfruits and pineapple.

 Syconus: This develops from hypanthodium type of inflorescence.

Asexual Reproduction of Flowering Plants

The production of an offspring identical to a single parent. It is less complicated in plants because
pollination and seed production are not required.

Plant Hormones and their Functions

 Gibberellins
- Induce cell division and elongation in stem tissue.
- Involved in breaking dormancy of seeds, seed germination, and the induction of flowering
plants.
 Auxins
- prevent the growth and lateral buds
- inhibit abscission
 Abscisic acid
- Diverts photosynthetic products from leaves to seeds.
- Inhibits seed germination
 Cytokinins
- Induce cell divisions
- Inhibit the normal aging process
 Ethylene
- widely used to artificially ripen fruit.