CLASS: Form 5

SUBJECT: Biology
TOPIC: Reproduction in flowering plants
OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to:

 Describe the life cycle of a plant

 Describe the structure of a flower and relate the structure to the function
 Justify the differences between wind-pollinated and insect pollinated flowers
 Analyze the process of fertilization in a flowering plant and the development of fruit and
seed.
 Describe the structure of a fruit and adaptations for dispersal.
 Outline the importance of dispersal and how it can be brought about.

NOTES
General structure of a typical flower
Pollination
 Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants
 They usually contain both male and female reproductive parts
 Plants produce pollen, which contains a nucleus inside that is the male gamete
 Unlike the male gamete in humans (sperm), pollen is not capable of
locomotion (moving from one place to another)
 This means plants have to have mechanisms in place to transfer pollen from
the anther (male part of the flower) to the stigma (female part of the flower)
 This process is known as pollination and there are two main mechanisms by which it
occurs:
o Pollination where the pollen is transferred by insects (or sometimes other animals
like birds or bats)
o Pollination where the pollen is transferred by the wind

 The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are slightly different as each
is adapted for their specific function

Insect-pollinated flowers
 For the flowers of many plant species, the pollinating agents are insects (e.g. bees)
 Insects often visit these flowers to collect nectar (a sugary substance produced by insect-
pollinated flowers and the base of their petals, which provides the insects with energy)
 As an insect enters the flowers in search of nectar, it often brushes against the anthers,
which deposit sticky pollen onto the insect’s body
 When the insect visits another flower, it may brush against the stigma of this second
flower and in the process, may deposit some of the pollen from the first flower, resulting
in pollination
 The structures of an insect-pollinated flower ensure that the flower is well-adapted for
pollination by insects
Wind-pollinated flowers
 For wind-pollinated flowers, the process of pollination is more random than it is for
insect-pollinated flowers
 When ripe, the anthers open and shed their pollen into the open air
 The pollen is then either blown by the wind or carried by air currents until it (by chance)
lands on the stigma of a plant of the same species, resulting in pollination
 The structures of a wind-pollinated flower ensure that the flower is well-adapted for
pollination by the wind
Cross-pollination and self-pollination
 In insect or wind-pollinated plants, pollination can either occur via cross-
pollination or self-pollination
 Cross-pollination occurs when the pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma
of another plant of the same species
 This is the way most plants carry out pollination as it increases the genetic variation in
the offspring
 Occasionally, the pollen from a flower can land on its own stigma or on the stigma of
another flower on the same plant – this is known as self-pollination
 Self-pollination reduces the genetic variation in the offspring as all the gametes come
from the same parent (and are therefore genetically identical)
 Lack of variation in the offspring is a disadvantage if environmental conditions change,
as it is less likely that any offspring will have adaptations that suit the new
conditions well
Fertilisation
 In plants, the ovary contains one or more ovules
 The ovules are the structures that eventually develop into seeds
 Each ovule contains an ovum
 An ovum is an egg cell that contains the female nucleus that a male pollen
nucleus can fuse with
 In plants, fertilisation occurs when the pollen grain nucleus fuses with the ovum nucleus
The growth of the pollen tube
 Unlike the male gametes in animals (sperm), the pollen grain has no ‘tail’ to swim to the
ovary of the flower
 Instead, in order to reach the ovum nucleus, the pollen grain grows a pollen tube
o This only happens if the pollen grain has landed on the right kind of stigma (i.e.
of the same species as the flower the pollen came from)
 The nucleus inside the pollen grain moves down the tube as the tube grows down
the style towards the ovary (which contains the ovule that, in turn, contains the ovum)
 Once the nucleus of the pollen grain and the nucleus of the ovum have fused (joined
together), that particular ovule has been fertilised and a zygote has been formed
o The zygote will then start to divide (it is the structure that eventually develops
into an embryo plant)
Seed and fruit formation
 After fertilisation, the ovule (that contains the zygote) develops into the seed
 The wall of the ovule develops into the seed coat, known as the testa
 The parts of the flower surrounding the ovule (mainly the ovary walls) develop into
the fruit, which contains the seeds
o The fruit provides a mechanism for seed dispersal (getting the seeds away from
the parent plant)
o Some fruits are eaten by animals, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings
(the tough outer coat of seeds stops them from being digested)
o Some other fruits have sticky hooks that get caught in the fur of passing animals

 As different plants have different numbers of ovules, this explains why different fruits
have different numbers of seeds (which develop from the ovules)
1) Pericarp
It is the edible part of the fruit formed from the wall of the ripened ovary. The pericarp may be
fleshy as in apple, mango, and guava or dry as in walnut and apricot. It is further divided into
three parts:
o Epicarp: Also known as exocarp, it is the outermost layer of the pericarp that
forms the tough, outer skin of the fruit. It protects the inner parts of the fruit from
damage. In citrus fruits, the epicarp layer is called flavedo.
o Mesocarp: It is the middle layer of the pericarp. It is the fleshy, edible part of the
fruit found in apples, mangoes, and peaches. In citrus fruits, the white mesocarp
layer after the flavedo is called albedo.
 o Endocarp: It forms the innermost layer of the pericarp that immediately surrounds
the seed. It protects the seed from damage. The endocarp is generally not
consumed, but in citrus fruits like oranges, they form the central juicy, edible part.
2) The seed
Fruits can be divided into two main categories:

 Dry fruits- These can be further grouped into fruit that split open and throw out their
seeds (e.g., flamboyant) and those that do not split (e.g. sunflower or corn)
 Fleshy fruits- These include all brightly colored and juicy fruits which attract bats, birds
and humans. The animals and humans eat the flesh of the fruits, discarding the seeds or
swallow both flesh and seeds and pass out the seeds in their feces. E.g., mangoes,
oranges, tomatoes, and guava.
Sometimes it may be difficult to tell the difference between a fruit and a seed. In these cases,
the number of scars on the structure should be noted. The seed will have only one- where it
was attached in the ovary. The fruit will normally have two; one formed at the point of
attachment to the receptacle and the other at the attachment of the style and stigma.

Dispersal
Plants compete with each other for factors such as:
light
water
space
minerals in the soil
Seeds must be dispersed or spread away from each other and from the parent plant. This is to
reduce competition between the parent plant and the new plants, and between the new plants.
The table describes the most common methods of seed dispersal:

Method Detail Examples

Dandelion,
Wind Seeds have lightweight parts, wings or parachutes
sycamore

Some plants grow near rivers, lakes, streams or oceans. Their

Water fruits or seeds fall from the plant and are carried away by the Coconut, almonds
water.

Brightly coloured and tasty fruits contain seeds with

Animals Tomato, plum,
indigestible coats, so that the seeds pass through the animal’s
(inside) raspberry, grape
digestive system undamaged

Animals
Fruits have hooks that attach them to the fur of passing animals Grass seeds
(outside)

Self- Have a pod that bursts open when ripe, throwing the seeds
Pea pod
propelled away from the plant

Germination
Germination is the start of growth in the seed
The seed contains the zygote (the fertilised egg cell), which divides into cells that then develop
into the embryo plant
When the seed germinates, this embryo begins to grow into the young seedling
Structures known as cotyledons surround the embryo
Some plants have one cotyledon, whereas others have two
The cotyledons contain food reserves that supply the young seedling with food (and,
therefore, energy for growth) when the seed starts to germinate
The cotyledons fulfil this role until the young plant grows its own leaves and becomes capable
of making its own food via photosynthesis
After taking in water, the seed coat (testa) splits
This leads to the production of the plumule (the first emerging shoot) and radicle (the first
emerging root)

Conditions for Germination

 Germination is the start of growth in the seed
 Three factors are required for successful germination:
 o Water – allows the seed to swell up, which causes the seed coat (testa) to burst,
allowing the growing embryo plant to exit the seed. Water also allows the
enzymes in the embryo to start working so that growth can occur (increases
metabolic activity)
o Oxygen – required for respiration, so that energy can be released for
germination
o Warmth – germination improves as temperature rises (up to a certain point) as
the reactions which take place are controlled by enzymes, which cannot function
effectively when temperatures are too low
 As carbon dioxide is not necessary for germination but also does not inhibit it, it makes
no difference whether it is present or not

Conditions for Germination

 Germination is the start of growth in the seed
 Three factors are required for successful germination:
o Water – allows the seed to swell up, which causes the seed coat (testa) to burst,
allowing the growing embryo plant to exit the seed. Water also allows the
enzymes in the embryo to start working so that growth can occur (increases
metabolic activity)
o Oxygen – required for respiration, so that energy can be released for
germination
o Warmth – germination improves as temperature rises (up to a certain point) as
the reactions which take place are controlled by enzymes, which cannot function
effectively when temperatures are too low
 As carbon dioxide is not necessary for germination but also does not inhibit it, it makes
no difference whether it is present or not