Perpetuation of

Life

Lesson 2
1. plant and animal
reproduction
2. how genes work
3. how genetic engineering is
used to produce novel
products
 MELCS
 Describe the different ways of how
representative animals reproduce
 Describe the process of genetic

engineering
 Evaluate the benefits and risks of

using GMOs
 Real Story of Finding
Nemo
 What could have happened to nemo in
the real world?
 Clown fishes are preyed upon by large

predators such as sharks and eels but

they can retreat to the safety of the sea
anemone. The most dangerous predators
are humans as clownfishes are the
favorite to be kept in tanks and
aquariums.
 Clown fishes are captured using
cyanide, bleach and other
chemicals to catch them and other
coral reef fishes for pet trade. It is a
good thing that clown fishes have a
symbiotic relationship with the sea
anemone. Scientists have found out
that the immunity of clown fishes to the
anemone's sting is due to the special
layer of mucus around their body.
 If something happens to the male, the
next immature male will become sexually
mature and replace his role in the
couple's relationship. However, if the
female is the one that dies, the large male
will change sex and replace her and the
next stronger immature male will mature
and take his place. This sex change
process is possible because clown fishes
are all born protandrous hermaphrodites
which means that when a clownfish is
born, both sexual organs are present.
 The male sex organs will mature first
in its body and that's the reason why a
brood will have all males and later
degenerate to have the female organs
mature as needed. These changes
however are irreversible.
PLANT REPRODUCTION
PLANT REPRODUCTION
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
SUMMARY
 BENEFITS AND RISK OF USING

GMOs
 Reproduction
 Sexual reproduction
– Joining of an egg and sperm

 Asexual reproduction
– A single organism replicating its
genetic material to split into two
identical organisms.
 Asexual Reproduction
in Flowering Plants
 Produces identical offspring from a
single parent plant
 Eliminates genetic recombination

 Strategies in plants reproduced

asexually through stems, roots, and

leaves
 Genetically identical
 Vegitative Reproduction
 A form of asexual reproduction where
a new plant grows from parts of an
existing plant.
 Fast reproduction

 Examples:

– Strawberry runners
– Moss fragmentation
– Potato eyes and buds
 Comes from modified stems, such as
runners, tubers, corms and rhizomes
Vegetation reproduction strategies in plants
 The stem is the most commonly-modified vegetative
organ. Strawberries reproduce by means of long,
horizontal stems (called stolons or runners) that run
along the surface of the soil. These horizontal stems have
nodes or regions where new shoot system and root
system can be produced above and below them.
 Rhizomes are underground stems that allow some plants
to form a network and produce their kind. E.g. Iris via
these horizontal underground stems. Just like stolons,
new plants will arise from the nodes of a rhizome.
 Potatoes are expanded portions of a rhizome branch
called tubers specialized for storage and reproduction.
Compared to stolons and rhizomes, which are horizontal
stems, bulbs and corms are short, vertical underground
stems.
 Bulbs are seen in lilies and garlic plants with short
stems but with highly modified leaves that store
nutrients.
 Corms are observed from gladioli and crocuses that
resemble much like bulbs but with disc-like parts
primarily of stem tissue. There are times that leaves are
modified for reproduction. A certain plant, Kalanchoe
daigremontiana, reproduces from its leaves. Numerous
adventitious plantlets arise from the meristematic tissues
located along the notches of the leaves.
 Suckers or sprouts can also give rise to other plants.
Example of this growth pattern is common among
apples, cherries, blackberry plants and many
angiosperms. Dandelion root fragments when pulled out
of the ground can cause one of each to grow a new
plant. Many trees form interconnected shoots or suckers
produced by their roots.
 Artificial Propagation Methods

 Often faster than growing plants from

seeds
 Through cutting the stems or using a

piece of plant material

 E.g.: sugarcane, pineapple, apple,

and ornamental plants through stem

cutting
 Grafting
 Attaching a piece of stem from one

plant to a root or root bearing stem

of another plant
 Combination of root-bearing-host

(stock) and grafted part (Scion)

 The vascular system of scion will

merge with the stock forming a

continuous vascular system
producing xylem and phloem to
transport water and nutrients
 Sexual Reproduction in
Flowering Plants

 Angiosperms (flowering plants)

 Happens in the sexual organs of

flowering plants contained in the flowers

 Involves fusion of the sex cells from

parents plants through alternation of

generation (diploid sporophyte
generation produces a haploid
gametophyte generation)
Alternation of Generations
Fertilization:
 Nonvascular plants- Need a film of
water for the sperm to reach the
egg.

 Vascular plants- Do not need

water for the sperm to reach the
egg.
Alteration of Generations
As plants evolved, the sporophyte
generation became larger:
 Nonvascular plants- Sporophyte
depends on the gametophyte for
support and nutrition.

 Vascular
plants- Sporophyte lives
independent of the gametophyte.
 The Parts of a Flower
• Most flowers have
four parts:
• sepals,
• petals,
• stamens,
• Carpels
(pistils)
 Stamen (male)
• Anther: pollen
grains grow in the
anther.
• When the grains
are fully grown, the
anther splits open.
• Filament: holds the
anther
 Pistil (female)
• Stigma
• Style
• Ovary

Stigma – sticky place for

pollen to attach
Style – where pollen nuclei
travels to reach the egg
Ovary – where egg is located
 Most plants are hermaphrodites (each
flower has both male and female sex
organs.
 Monoecious (one house)- male and

female parts are separate in a plant

 To avoid pollinating itself, it produces

male and female flowers which mature

at different times
 The parts of a flower
• Sepals protect the
bud until it opens.
(Calyx)
• Petals attract
insects. (Corolla)
• Stamens (male) make
pollen.
• Pistils (carpel) grow
into fruits which
contain the seeds.
 Peduncle: The stalk of a flower.
 Receptacle: The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower
are attached.
 Sepal: The outer parts of the flower (often green and leaf-like) that
enclose a developing bud.
 Petal: The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored.
 Stamen: The pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a
slender filament supporting the anther.
 Anther: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
 Pistil: The ovule producing part of a flower. The ovary often supports
a long style, topped by a stigma. The mature ovary is a fruit, and the
mature ovule is a seed.
 Stigma: The part of the pistil where pollen germinates.
 Ovary: The enlarged basal portion of the pistil where ovules are
produced.
 Stages of Sexual
Reproduction in Plants
 Stages of Sexual
Reproduction
1. Pollen and Egg Formation
2. Pollination
3. Fertilization
4. Seed Dispersal and Germination
 Gamete Formation: Ovule and pollen

 Pollination: Pollen reaches the stigma of a flower

 Germination: Pollen germinates and forms a pollen

tube that reaches the ovary, and the male gamete
is released.

 Fusion: Male gamete fuses with female gamete and

forms zygote.
 Embryo Formation: The zygote divides
numerous times to form an embryo

 Seed Development: Seeds germinate under

favorable conditions to produce a seedling.

 Flowering Plant Seeds: The embryo is

formed from the zygote, the endosperm is
formed by double fertilization, and the seed
coat is formed by maternal tissue of the
ovule.
 Plant Sexual Life Cycle
 The plant life cycle involves two distinct stages: the
Gametophyte Stage and the Sporophyte Stage.
 During the Gametophyte Stage, the haploid
Gametophyte produces distinct multicellular structures
called the male and female Gametes.
 The male and female gametes fuse during fertilization
to create a diploid Zygote.
 The zygote develops into a still-diploid Sporophyte,
thus marking the entry into the sporophyte stage of the
plant life cycle.
 The diploid sporophyte produce Spores through
meiosis.
 These spores divide through mitosis to once again
produce haploid gametophytes, which will once again
produce gametes, and the cycle repeats.
Alternation of Generations
 Alternation of Generations
Of Nonseed Nonvascular Plants
 Alteration of Generations
Of Nonseed Vascular Plants
 Alteration of Generations
Of Naked Seed Vascular Plants
 Alteration of Generations
Of Flowering Seed Vascular
Plants
 Moss reproductive
cycle
 Gametophyte dominant
– Male= Antheridium
– Female= Archegonium

Antheridium
Archegonium
 Moss reproductive
cycle
 Antheridium- Male produces
flagellated sperm that need water to
get to the archegonium.
 Chemotaxis- Female archegonium

produces chemicals that attract/direct

the sperm.
Moss reproductive
cycle
 Moss reproductive
cycle
 Sporophyte- Depends on the
gametophyte for support and
nutrition.
 Protonema- Spores that land in a

favorable spot develop into a

protonema (gametophyte
generation).
Fern reproductive cycle
 Sporophyte dominant
 Frond- feathery stems of a fern

 Sorus- underneath the frond

–Produces spores
Fern reproductive cycle
 Prothallus
– The fern spore grows into a
prothallus when it lands on damp,
rich soil.
– Heart shaped
– Contains Antheridia
& Archegonium
 Conifer reproductive
cycle
 Sporophyte dominant
 Heterosporous- Produces two kinds

of spores that develop into male and

female cones.
– Female cones
– Made of many scales
– 2 ovules at the base of each scale
– Each ovule produces a
Megaspore which develops into
the female archegonia.
 Conifer reproductive
cycle
– Male cones
– Made of small scales that form
microspores
– 4 microspores develop into a
single pollen grain
– Pollen grains are the
male gametophyte that
are transported on air
currents
 Modifications in
Flowers
 Complete flowers – have all four
organs (sepals, petals, stamens, and
pistils)
– M orning glory and tiger lily
 Incomplete flowers – lacks one or
more of the four organs
– Squash and corn
Tiger Lily – a complete flower
 Incomplete Flowers

Female Squash Flower Male Squash Flower

 Modifications in
Flowers
 P erfect flowers- Have both stamens
and pistils (E x: Lily)
 Imperfect flowers- E ither have a

functioning stamen or pistil, but not

both
E x : Cucumber, Squash
Pollination Mechanisms
 Animal pollination
– hummingbirds & bees transfer pollen from
plant to plant
– Flowers are brightly colored or highly
scented
 Wind pollination
– lightweight and are carried by wind
– Small flowers with little color or scent
 Self pollination
– Able to pollinate flowers on same plant
– Have both pistel and stamen
Pollinators
 PHOTOPERIODICITY
 Plants flower
based on the
number of hours
of darkness they
are exposed to
 Short-day plants -
flower when days
are short (fall,
winter, spring)
Ex: Pansy,
Poinsettias
 PHOTOPERIODICITY
 Long-day
plants -flower
when days are
long (summer)
 Examples:
– Potatoes
– Clover
– Spinach
 PHOTOPERIODICITY
 Intermediate-day
plants- Grow when
darkness is about
equal to daylight.
E x : Sugar Cane
 PHOTOPERIODICITY
 Day-neutral plants-
Hours of darkness
does not effect
flowering, as long as
there is enough
daylight to perform
photosynthesis.
E x: Corn, tomatoes,
cotton, roses
Chapter 23.3
Flowering P lants
 Flowering Plant
reproductive cycle
 Sporophyte dominant
 Ovary- produces 4 megaspores, but 3

disintegrate and only one remains.

 Double fertilization – requires 2 sperm

to fertilize the egg and make a seed.

 Seed – embryo (cotyledons),

endosperm (food for embryo), seed

coat (protect seed)
Flowering Plant
Reproduction
 4 kinds of fruit
1. Simple Fleshy
fruits- contain
one or more
seeds.

Ex: Apples, Peach,

grape, tomato,
pumpkin
 4 Kinds of fruit

2. Aggregate fruit-
Most berries.
Many female
parts fuse to
form one fruit.

Ex: Blackberries,
strawberries,
raspberries
 4 Kinds of fruit
3. Multiple fruit-
Flowers fuse to
form one fruit.

Ex: Pineapples,
figs
 4 Kinds of fruit
4.. Dry fruit- Fruits
that are dry.

Ex: Nuts, grains,

seed pods
 Seed Dispersal
 Water
– Coconuts
 Wind
– Dandelions
 Animals
– Fruits attract animals that will eat the
seeds so that the seeds can be carried
far away where it won’t have to compete
with its parent.
 Seed Germination
 Requires:
– Water (swells and breaks seed coat)
– Oxygen (cell respiration as seed grows)
– Optimal Temperature (each plant requires
a certain temperature to begin growth)

Seeds will lie dormant in their hard seed

coats waiting for optimal conditions.
 Describe the different ways of how
representative animals reproduce

 Describe the process of genetic

engineering

 Evaluate the benefits and risks of

using GMOs
 Phenylketonuria
 (fen-ul-key-toe-NU-ree-uh), also called
PKU, is a rare inherited disorder that
causes an amino acid called
phenylalanine to build up in the body.
PKU is caused by a change in the
phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) gene.
This gene helps create the enzyme
needed to break down phenylalanine.
 Assignment
 conduct a survey of products
containing substances that can trigger
genetic disorders such as
phenylketonuria
 References
 https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/
biodiversity-counts/plant-identification/plant-morphology/parts-
of-a-flower#:~:text=Petal%3A%20The%20parts%20of
%20a,producing%20part%20of%20a%20flower.
 https://www.inspiritvr.com/general-bio/plants/plant-
reproduction-and-life-cycle-study-guide