Chapter 6.

Perpetuation of Life

Content Standards:

The learners demonstrate the understanding of:

 plant and animal reproduction
 how genes work

 how genetic engineering is used to produce novel products

Performance Standards:

The learners shall be able to :

1. conduct a survey of products containing substances that can trigger genetic disorders

such as phenylketonuria

Learning Competencies:

The learners:

a. describe the different ways of how plants reproduce

b. illustrate the relationships among structures of flowers, fruits, and seeds

c. describe the different ways of how representative animals reproduce

d. explain how the information in the DNA allows the transfer of genetic information and

synthesis of proteins

e. describe the process of genetic engineering

f. conduct a survey of the current uses of genetically modified organisms

g. evaluate the benefits and risks of using GMOs

BIG IDEA

Reproduction ensures perpetuation of life forms. If organisms fails to reproduce its

kind, their species will gradually diminish until they cease to exist.
Reproduction and the Perpetuation of Life
Reproduction ensures the survival of the [Link] living things reproduce. It is the
process of perpetuating life. It involves the transfer of genetic information from parents to
offsprings (heredity).Inheritance is the process of genetic transmission of traits from parents to
offspring.
In some plants and animals, this process takes place in two main methods: sexual
reproduction, which involves the gametes ( egg & sperm cells) of the organisms, and the asexual
reproduction methods, which does not involve the gametes. Asexual reproduction results in
offspring that are genetically identical to the parent organism. Sexual reproduction results in
offspring that are genetically different from the parent organisms.

Asexual Reproduction
This requires only 1 parent and the offspring are an exact copy of the parent---a
[Link] that reproduce asexually cannot develop much variety, because they are
“copying” the original organism exactly. Asexual reproduction in plants does not involve the
formation of flowers, fruits, or seeds. In asexual reproduction, a part of a plant, such as a stem or
root, produces a new plant.

Methods of Asexual Reproduction

[Link] fission. Single-celled organisms (Amoeba, Paramecium,

Euglena) which use asexual reproduction can do so simply by
dividing into two equal [Link] is called binary fission.

• When conditions are good, such as plenty of water, food, Fig.6a Amoeba splits into two
right temperatures, etc., binary fission is a very effective
way of producing many, many offspring.

• For example, the cell of a Paramecium can divide, grow,

and divide again in the space of 8 hours.

[Link]. An offspring grows out of the body of the parent.

Fig.6b Paramecium during binary fission

In yeasts the cell does not divide equally in two halves; instead, there is a large mother cell
and a smaller daughter cell. Buds grow and eventually separates from the mother until it becomes
now capable to live on its own. Can you imagine, if human beings are like yeast cells?
 Fig. 6c Hydra, Cactus and yeast cells doing budding

[Link]. In this form, the body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of which
can produce an offspring.

Fig. 6d Corals, starfish and plants reproduce through fragmentation

Some plants can grow from cutting them up and replanting them. Green plants are quite
sophisticated in their methods of asexual reproduction. Offspring may be produced by runners,
bulbs, rhizomes or tubers.

Fig. 6e Onions propagate through bulbs, berries through runners, and potato through tubers

[Link]. Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which females produce

eggs that develop without fertilization. Parthenogenesis is seen to occur naturally in some
invertebrates, along with several fish, amphibians, and reptiles as well as in many plants. There
are no known cases of parthenogenesis in mammals.
What about hermaphroditism?

It is a condition of having both male and female reproductive organs.

Hermaphroditic plants—most flowering plants,
or angiosperms—are called monoecious, or bisexual.
Hermaphroditic animals—mostly invertebrates such
as worms, bryozoans (moss animals), trematodes
(flukes), snails, slugs, and barnacles—are usually parasitic,
slow-moving, or permanently attached to another animal or
plant.

Fig. 6f A hermaphroditic worm

Sexual Reproduction F O

Sexual reproduction happens both in plants and animals. This requires 2 parents , the
male and female (egg & sperm cells). The egg and sperm join
together and form zygote, a fertilized egg, which eventually
forms an entirely new organism. Offsprings are different from
the parent organism because sexual reproduction produces a
greater chance of variation due to the random combination of
genes from both parents within a species. This variation
improves the chances that a species will adapt to his
environment and survive.

Fig. 6g A sperm cell penetrating an egg cell

Methods of Sexual Reproduction

In plants, pollen is produced in the male organs of the

flowers - anthers. Pollination occurs when pollen is
transferred from the anthers to the female organs by wind or
by animals. If the female stigma is receptive to a pollen grain,
the pollen produces a pollen tube, which grows through the
female tissue to the egg, where fertilization takes place by the
sperm nucleus. The process is rather different
in angiosperms (flowering plants) from what it is
in gymnosperms (other seed plants). In angiosperms, after the
pollen grain has landed on the stigma, it creates a pollen Fig. 6h Sexual reproduction in flowering plants thru pollination
tube which grows down the style until it reaches the ovary.
Sperm cells from the pollen grain then move along the pollen tube, enter the egg cell through
the micropyle and fertilise it, resulting in the production of a seed.

In gymnosperms, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, but exposed on the surface of a
dedicated support organ, such as the scale of a cone, so that the penetration of carpel tissue is
unnecessary. Details of the process vary according to the division of gymnosperms in question.
Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and Ginkgo have motile
sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and gnetophytes have
sperm that are unable to swim but are conveyed to the egg along a pollen tube.

In most animals (including humans) sexual reproduction happens which produces

offsprings by combining the genetic material of more than one parent . This involves two
parents, a male and a female. The female parent produces the egg, and the male parent produces
the sperm, where fertilization happens. Fertilization could be done outside or inside the body of
the organism.

[Link] Fertilization

External fertilization usually requires a medium such as

water, which the sperms can use to swim towards the egg cell.
External fertilization usually occur in fish and amphibians. The
females lay the eggs in the water and the male squirts the
sperm in the same area.

Fig. 6i Eggs laid by female frog

[Link] Fertilization

Fertilization occurs within the female. Internal fertilization occurs in mammals, insects,
birds, reptiles.

Viviparous are organisms that lay the young alive. Mammals (gorillas, lions, elephants,
rats, zebras, and dolphins )have live births. Oviparous includes insects, birds, reptiles which lay
eggs .

Fig. 6j Ostrich laying Eggs, lion

giving birth to a young

Plant Reproduction

Plants undergo sexual and asexual methods of reproduction. Asexual reproduction is

natural “cloning.” Parts of the plant, such as leaves or stems, produce roots and become an
independent plant. Sexual reproduction is adapted by flowering plants or angiosperms.
Angiosperms are plants that protect their seeds within the body of
a fruit. They make up ¾’s of all plants, including the trees, shrubs,
herbs, grasses, and water plants.
Plants have a double life cycle with two distinct forms:
– Sporophyte: diploid, produce haploid spores by
meiosis.
– Gametophyte: haploid, produce gametes by
mitosis.

Fig. 6k Daisy, (Gymnosperm, a flowering plant)

Gymnosperms are plants that have seeds unprotected by an
ovary or fruit. Gymnosperms include the conifers, cycads, and
ginkgo.
 Mosses, ferns, and related plants have motile,
swimming sperm. The life cycle of most mosses
begins with the release of spores from a capsule,
which opens when a small, lidlike structure, called the
operculum, degenerates. A single spore germinates to
form a branched, filamentous protonema, from which
a leafy gametophyte develops.
The life cycle of the fern has two different stages;
sporophyte, which releases spores, and gametophyte,
which releases gametes. Gametophyte plants are
haploid,
sporophyte plants are diploid. This type of life cycle
is called alternation of generations.
Spores are produced on the underside of mature
plants. These will germinate and grow into small,
heart-shaped plants called gametophytes. The
gametophytes produce both sperm and egg cells,
and will fertilize itself, or others. Once the
fertilization occurs, the adult fern will begin
growing.
The fertilized gametophytes begin to look like a
mossy growth. After some time, young fronds will
appear, rising out of the moss. If direct sunlight falls
onto the young fronds for an extended period of
time, the plant may die easily. This is because the
tiny stems are not strong enough to sustain direct
light and will dry out.

Once these tiny fronds grow larger, the plant has a better chance of survival. When
the veins are matured, moisture from the ground will be transported easily to the outermost
leaves and the plant can withstand periods of direct sunlight. After the plant is large and mature,
it will grow spores on the undersides of its leaves and the life cycle of a fern will begin again.
 Conifers are wind-pollinated
plants. Chance allow some pollen to
land on scales of female cones. Pollen
germinates, grow a pollen tube into
the egg to allow sperm to fertilize the
egg.

Fig. 6l cone of a conifer, Fig. 6m Life Cycle of a conifer

Reproduction in angiosperms
(flowering) plants begins with pollination,
the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
on the same flower or to the stigma of
another flower on the same plant (self-
pollination), or from anther on one plant to
the stigma of another plant (cross-
pollination). Once the pollen grain lodges
on the stigma, a pollen tube grows from the
pollen grain to an ovule. Two sperm nuclei
then pass through the pollen tube. One of Fig. 6n Life cycle of an angiosperm, gametogenesis ( male & female)

them unites with the egg nucleus and

produces a zygote. The other sperm
nucleus unites with two polar nuclei to
produce an endosperm nucleus. The
fertilized ovule develops into a seed.
Double fertilization occurs when one sperm fertilizes the egg, and one sperm the two polar
nuclei together. The sperm nucleus and egg nucleus join to form
a 2n (diploid) embryo. The other sperm nucleus and the two
polar nuclei join to form a 3n (triploid) endosperm. The
endosperm is the food supply for the embryo.

After fertilization, the

petals and sepals fall off
flower. Ovary “ripens”
into a fruit. The ovule Fig 6o Double fertilization
develops into a seed.
Fig.6p1 Transition from a flower to a fruit

Fig.6p2 Transition from an ovule to a seed

Pollination in Flowering Plants

Wind, insects or other animals transfer pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma
of another. Flowers vary depending on pollination mechanism. Showy flowers are the result of
selection for more efficient pollination strategies.

Pollination Vectors
Wind Pollination: These are dull, scentless flowers with reduced petals.
Bees/Butterfly Pollination: These are flowers with bright colors, and have scented nectar. They
sip nectar, get pollen on coats, transfer pollen from flower to
flower.
Bird Pollination: They have nectaries, bright-colored, tube-like
flowers.
Moth Pollination: The flowers are usually white petals, and are
open at night.
Fly Pollination: The flowers have rank odor, flesh-colored
petals.
Fig. 6q Pollinating bee on a flower

Flower parts are modified leaves. Those that were

brightly colored structures called petals which attracts insects in search of pollen. Sepals, on the
other hand, surround and protect the bud. Flowers are complete if they have all parts, and perfect
if they have both male and female parts. Some flowers: incomplete, usually imperfect (separate
male and female flowers). A tulip is complete (though the sepals
are the same color as the petals) and perfect.

The male reproductive organ of a flower,stamen consists

of two parts: anther and filament. The anther is where meiosis
occurs to produce haploid pollen. The filament is a stalk that
supports the anther.
Fig. 6r Structure of an anther, reproductive
The male reproductive organ of a flower, pistil consists of organs of a flower

the stigma, style and ovary. The sticky stigma receives the pollen
from the anther. The pollen grows a tube down through the
style, which leads to the ovary. Meiosis occurs in the ovary to
produce haploid ovules.
Plant and animal reproduction do vary considerably. The
table below summarizes the differences.

All organisms make

other organisms like
themselves.
If organisms fail to do
this, populations will diminish
and disappear as their
members die from old age,
disease, accidents, predation,
etc.
Every living things owe its existence to the reproductive activities of other organisms.

How do genes work?

Genetics is the study of how different qualities,
called traits, are passed down from parents to child.
Genetics helps explain what makes you unique, why
family members look alike, and why some diseases run
in families. When we trace the paths of these qualities,
we are following packages of information called genes .

Genes are instructions for building the parts of

your body and doing the work that keeps you
alive, from carrying oxygen to digesting to Fig. 6s The double helix DNA
food and everything else we do. The genes are grouped into collections
called chromosomes. Most humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

DNA and Gene Expression

DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid. It is regarded as the “blueprint of life”. This
carries genetic [Link] is a double helix structure. Located in the nucleus. The monomer is
a nucleotide, made up of the following:
– A phosphate
– A ribose sugar
– A nitrogenous base: A – adenine, T – thymine, C
– cytosine, and G – guanine. They follow base
pair rules: adenine- thymine, and cytosine to
guanine.

Genes are located on the chromosomes. Every species

has a different number of chromosomes. There are two types of Fig. 6t Base pairs
chromosomes: autosomes and sex chromosomes.

Genes are located on the chromosomes which are found

in the nucleus of a cell. When a cell is undergoing cell
reproduction, the chromosomes are visible.
Chromosomes appear when the chromatin condenses
and become visible. Most of the time (90%) the genetic
material in the form of chromatin. A genome is the
complete genetic information contained in an
Fig. 6u nucleus, chromosome, DNA
individual.

What is gene expression?

Gene expression is the activation of a gene that

results in a protein. Gene expression takes place differently
in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. What is a prokaryote?
Eukaryote? Prokaryotes are organisms with no membrane-
bound organelles (nucleus). They are considered as more
primitive organisms, with only one circular chromosome.
Bacteria is an example of a prokaryote. Eukaryotes are
organisms with membrane-bound organelles ( specialize in
function –nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast).
Chromosomes are in pairs and not circular. All organisms

Fig. 6v Gene Expression: Transcription to Translation

that are not bacteria: protist, fungi, plants and animals are eukaryotes.
In Eukaryotes, following mitosis or meiosis, DNA recoils but certain regions remain
relaxed for transcription. The areas of relaxed DNA are called euchromatin. Transcription is the
reading of the DNA and changing the code to mRNA. Translation is changing the mRNA into a
trait by using tRNA to interpret the mRNA.
DNA in eukaryotes has regions of
coding and noncoding DNA. The regions of
DNA that code for proteins or traits are called
EXONS, while the regions that do not code for
proteins are called INTRONS.
In prokaryotes, transcription and
translation occur in the cytoplasm. In
eukaryotes, transcription occurs inside the
nucleus in a two step sequence of events. Pre-
mRNA includes both introns and exons for the gene. The mRNA is only the coding portion
(exons). Translation occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes. Remember, there are three (3)
types of RNA:
 messenger RNA (mRNA): RNA molecules that carry copies of the
instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins from the DNA to the
rest of the cell.
 ribosomal RNA (rRNA): a form of RNA made up of several dozen
proteins.
 transfer RNA (tRNA): RNA molecules that transfer each amino acid to the
ribosome as it is specified by the coded messages in mRNA.
In the majority of cells, most RNA molecules are involved in protein synthesis. RNA
controls the assembly of amino acids into proteins.
Structure of RNA
Like DNA, RNA consists of a long chain of nucleotides. There are 3 main difference
between DNA and RNA:
1. The sugar in RNA is ribose, instead of deoxyribose.
2. RNA is generally single-stranded.
3. RNA contains the base uracil instead of thymine.

Transcription
The information contained in DNA is stored in blocks called genes. The genes code for
proteins. The proteins determine what a cell will be like. The DNA stores this information safely
in the nucleus where it never leaves. The instructions are copied from the DNA into messages
comprised of RNA. These messages are sent out into the cell to direct the assembly of proteins.
The path of information is often referred to as the central dogma

DNA  RNA  protein

 The use of information in DNA to
direct the production of particular proteins is
called gene expression, which takes place in
two stages
– transcription is the process
when a messenger RNA
(mRNA) is made from a gene
within the DNA
– translation is the process of
using the mRNA to direct the
production of a protein Fig. 6w Transcription

During transcription, a protein called RNA polymerase produces the mRNA copy of
DNA. It first binds to one strand of the DNA at a site called the promoter and then moves down
the DNA molecule and assembles a complementary copy of RNA. RNA uses uracil (U) in place
of thymine (T).

There are 64 genetic codons in the

genetic code. This is reflected in the given table.

Translation
RNA is single stranded. It does not contain
thymine but has uracil, instead. The tRNA
carries 3 base pair code for specific amino acid.
Amino acids compose polypeptide [Link]
or more polypeptide chains compose a protein.
Proteins provide the “blueprints” for our
characteristics and functions.

How does translation work?

 In Prokaryotes there are three (3) regulatory elements that control gene expression.
1. Structural genes – genes that code for a specific polypeptide (protein).
2. Promoter – DNA segment that recognizes RNA polymerase.
3. Operator – element that serves as a binding site for an inhibitor protein that blocks
transcription.

What is the role of ribosome?

Ribosomes guide the translation process. It has two subunits.

Eukaryote genes on a DNA strand also have noncoding control sequences that facilitate
transcription. These are called enhancers. Transcription factors are additional proteins that bind
to RNA polymerase and enhancers to help with transcription.

Genes and Cell Differentiation

Cell differentiation is the development of cells into cells with specialized functions. For
instance, a cell differentiate into muscle cells, liver cell, red blood cells. As organisms grow and
develop, organs and tissues develop to produce a characteristic form. The process is call
morphogenesis.

Genes and Appendages

Homeotic genes are regulatory genes that
determine where certain anatomical structures, such as
appendages, will develop in an organism during
morphogenesis.
These seem to be the master genes of
development.

Fig.6x Outgrown appendage

Genes and Cancer
Genes control how your cells work by making proteins that have specific functions and
act as messengers for the cell. Therefore, each gene must have the correct instructions or "code"
for making its protein. If this is so, protein can perform the correct function for the cell. All cancers
begin when one or more genes in a cell are mutated, or changed. This creates an abnormal protein
or no protein at all. An abnormal protein provides different information than a normal protein,
which can cause cells to multiply uncontrollably and become [Link] most cancers are not
clearly linked to the genes we inherit . Although this is not the leading cause of death in the
Philippines, but quite a number of Filipinos already had acquired cancer.

Tumor is an abnormal proliferation of cells that results from uncontrolled, abnormal cell
division. It could be categorized as:
 Benign – a tumor that remains within a mass
 Malignant tumor- uncontrolled dividing cells that invade and destroy healthy
tissue elsewhere in the body
 Metastasis – spread of cancer cells beyond their original site

Kinds of Cancer
 Carcinomas – grow in skin and tissues that line the organs of the body
– Example: lung and breast
 Sarcomas – grow in bone and muscle tissue
 Lymphomas – solid tumors that grow in tissues that form blood cells
– Example: leukemia
In normal cells, that frequency of cell division is governed by several factors:
1. Adequate nutrition
2. Attachment to other cells, membranes or fibers
3. Division stops if cell become crowded (usually after 20 – 50) divisions, but cancer cells
continue dividing and ignore the normal messages to stop dividing.

Can cancer be avoided?

Every single human being on the planet has cancer cells in their bodies. The good news is
that, for most of us, our body’s natural defenses know how to defeat these defective, tumor-
causing cells, and they never get the chance to grow up into a full-blown cancer. While others are
turned “on” and is never remedied at all. Sometimes cancer can be prevented through life’s
choices, for instance, if one prefers not to smoke, then, he is not at risk of incurring lung cancer.
So, how does one avoid being inflicted with cancer? So far, nothing has been found out practices,
activities or diets proven to prevent every case of cancer, but the following ways may be of help
in reducing the risks of having one:
 Achieve and maintain a healthy weight throughout life.
 Be physically active.
 Limit sedentary behavior such as sitting, lying down, watching TV, and other forms of
screen-based entertainment.
 Eat a healthy diet, with an emphasis in plant foods.
 If possible, get a routine medical care.

Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an
organism's genome using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic
makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce
improved or novel organisms. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating
and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA
sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host
organism. Genes may be removed, or "knocked out", using a nuclease. Gene targeting is a
different technique that uses homologous recombination to change an endogenous gene, and can
be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce point mutations. Genetic
Engineers can alter the DNA code of living organisms through the following:
 Selective Breeding
People have been using selective breeding for 1000’s of years with farm crops and
domesticated animals. Breeding is employed only on those plants or animals with
desirable traits.
 Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA technology was first used in the 1970’s with bacteria. The ability to
combine the DNA of one organism with the DNA of another organism, thus producing a
better and more adaptive organism.
 PCR
Polymerase Chain Reaction allows scientists to make many copies of a piece of DNA by
heating the DNA so it “unzips”. The complementary nitrogenous bases, are then added
and allowed to cool so the complementary strands can “zip” together.
 Gel Electrophoresis
This technology allows scientists to identify someone’s DNA by
cutting the DNA sample with restriction enzymes. The DNA
fragments were run through a gel, until bands will form in the gel.

Everyone’s DNA bands are unique and can be used to identify a person.
DNA bands are like “genetic fingerprints”.

Fig. 6y Gel electrophoresis

 An organism that is generated through genetic
engineering is considered to be a transgenic organism or
genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs
were bacteria generated in 1973 and GM mice in
1974. Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized in
1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since
1994. GloFish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was first sold
in the United States in December 2003.

Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in Fig. 6z Transgenic goat

numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial
biotechnology, and medicine.

In a highly competitive world of growing global population, where an estimate of 10

babies are delivered within a minute worldwide. There is a great promise in the use of this
technology to benefit not only the farmers, but also societies worldwide.

The following are the advantages obtained from Genetically Modified organisms.

 Creating plants better resistant to weeds, pest and other diseases; such as corn

 Bigger yields to create more efficient use of land, less uses of herbicides and other
pesticides.
 Foods with better texture, flavor and nutritional value.
 Foods with a longer shelf life for easier shipping.
 Finally, GM foods can create an essential sustainable way to feed the world.

However, there has been issues thrown regarding the use of GM to be hazardous to
health and even to the environment. The following are the disadvantages of using GMOs.

 Environmental Hazards. Some weeds had developed also resistance on pests, as obtained
from genetically modified crops.
 Health risks. People had developed allergic reactions to GM drugs or food .
 Economy. Marketing GMO products are costly and may take a longer period of time.
Getting patents for these products has been a major concern in agribusiness.