PLANT AND ANIMAL

REPRODUCTION
What is reproduction?

• It is the process by which mature

individuals produce offspring/s.
Importance of Reproduction

1. Procreation - reproduction sustains

the species so that it does not become
extinct.

2. Quality improvement - reproduction

allows for the mixing of genetic
materials leading to variation among
individuals in a species.
General Types of Reproduction
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• does not involve gametes, instead
parts of a mature organism may
develop to new individuals.
2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• involves fertilization, the fusion of
male and female gametes to form a
zygote.
Review on Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
• Maintenance of • Reduction/halving of
chromosome number chromosomes
(diploid) (haploid)
• Takes place in somatic • Occurs in reproductive
cells/growth cells/gonads/produces
• No crossing over/no gametes
variations • Crossing over takes
place/variation occurs
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Types of Asexual Reproduction

1. BINARY FISSION
• A cell splits into two new cells of
equal size
• Each daughter cell grows into a
new organism
• Occurs in organisms such as
amoeba, euglena, paramecium,
some fungi and bacteria
Types of Asexual Reproduction

2. SPORULATION
• Formation of spores
• Spores are small haploid cells
produced by plants
• Spores give rise to new haploid
organisms
• Includes molds, ferns,
bryophytes, pteridophytes
Types of Asexual Reproduction

3. BUDDING
• Where an outgrowth arises from a
parent and drops off to develop into a
new organisms
• Hereditary material in the daughter
cell and parent are exactly the same
• Occurs in organisms such as hydra,
jelly fish, sea anemones, yeast and
some fungi.
Types of Asexual Reproduction

4. FRAGMENTATION
• multicellular or colonial organisms is
a form of asexual reproduction or
cloning in which an organism is split
into fragments. Each of these
fragments develop into mature, fully
grown individuals that are clones of
the original organism.
ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Retention of useful
characteristics/genes/traits
• Offspring establishes
faster/shorter life cycle
• Better chances of survival
because of suitable environment
DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Lack of genetic variation
• Lowered resistance to disease
• Loss of hybrid vigor
• Competition for resources due to
overcrowding
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• In sexual reproduction,two individuals

produce offspring that have genetic
characteristics from both parents.
Sexual reproduction introduces new
gene combinations in a population
through genetic recombination.
GENETIC RECOMBINATION

• It refers to the process of

recombining genes to produce
new gene combinations that
differ from those of either parent.
Genetic recombination produces
genetic variation in organisms
that reproduce sexually.
ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Leads to variations.
• Variations which are desirable often
show hybrid vigor.
• High adaptability of individuals to
changing environmental conditions.
• Variations provide a basis for
evolutionary changes.
DISADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Fusion is difficult if two individuals
are isolated.
• Some variations may have
undesirable qualities.
• Population growth is slow.
TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. ISOGAMY
• Form of sexual reproduction that involves
gametes of similar morphology but
different in allele expression in one or
more mating types.
• Gametes are not categorized under male
or female but can be denoted as + and -
• In all cases, fertilization occurs when
gametes of two different mating types
fuse to form a zygote.
TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. ISOGAMY

• Basically, isogamy occurs in the lower

classes like fungi, algae, etc.
• Examples are Chlamydomonas and
Spirogyra (both are green algae)
TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

2. HETEROGAMY OR ANISOGAMY
• sexual reproduction that involves the
union or fusion of two gametes, which
differ in size and/or form.The smaller
gamete is considered to be male
(sperm cell), whereas the larger
gamete is regarded as female (egg
cell).
HERMAPHRODITES
• Organisms having both the male and
female reproductive organs.
• Examples are flowers having both stamen
and carpel; i.e. Roses, Lilies, etc.
• Hermaphroditic animals are
mostly invertebrates such as worms,
bryozoans (moss animals), trematodes
(flukes), snails, slugs, and barnacles—are
usually parasitic, slow-moving, or
permanently attached to another animal or
plant.
BISEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Occurs between hermaphrodite plants.

• Many plants are self-fertile and the male
parts can pollinate the female parts of the
same flower and/or same plant. Some
plants use a method known as self-
incompatibility to promote outcrossing.
Here, the male organs cannot fertilize the
female parts of the same plant; other
plants produce male and female flowers
at different times to promote outcrossing.
 PLANT
REPRODUCTION
FLOWERS

• In flowering plants, a flower is the

reproductive organ which is a
specialized shoot consisting of
modified stem and leaves.
PARTS OF A FLOWER

• Sepals - protects the unopened flower.

• Petals - may be brightly colored to attract
insects.
• Stamen - is the male part of the flower
(each consists of an anther held up on a
filament).
• Anther - produces male sex cells (pollen
grains)
Types of a Flower/Plant

• Unisexual flower
- has only one of the reproductive organ: carpel
or stamen i.e. either male or female flower.
• Carpelate
- is also called pistilate
- contains only carpels hence a female flower
• Staminate
- is also called a male flower
- contains stamens only.
Types of a Flower/Plant

• Dioecious plants
- have pistilate and staminate flowers on
different plants
- The plants are also known as male or
female plant.
• Monoecious plants
- have pistilate and staminate on one plant
- However, pistilate and staminate occur at
different parts of the plants e.g. maize
Types of a Flower/Plant

• Complete flower
- has all four parts i.e. sepals, petals, pistil
and stamen
• Incomplete flower
- does not have all four parts
- at least one part is missing
POLLINATION

• is the transfer of pollen grains

from anther to stigma of a flower
• results in seeds that will grow
into new plants
POLLINATION

• Plants have gametes, which contain half

the normal number of chromosomes for
that plant species. Male gametes are
found inside tiny pollen grains on the
anthers of flowers. Female gametes are
found in the ovules of a flower.

• Pollination is the process that brings

these male and female gametes together.
POLLEN GRAIN
• It is a structure produced by plants
containing the male haploid gamete
to be used in reproduction. The
gamete is covered by protective
layers which perform their role until
the pollen grain is capable of
fertilizing when reaching the stigma.
EMBRYO SAC

• It is a cell located at the center of

the ovule that contains the
haploid egg cell (female
gametophyte) for flowering
plants.
TYPES OF POLLINATION

• Self Pollination

• Cross Pollination
 CROSS
SELF
POLLINATION
POLLINATION

Transfer of pollen from Transfer of pollen from

anther to stigma of the anther of one flower to
same or genetically stigma of another different
identical flower flower

Plants ultimately
Plants are
become
heterozygous
homozygous
FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS

• It is the fusion of male and female

gametes to form a zygote.
• Zygote – eukaryotic cell produced
by the fertilization of two
gametes.
FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS

• 1 male gamete fuses with the egg cell

to produce a diploid zygote.
• 1 male gamete fuses with both the
polar nuclei to produce the triploid
primary endosperm nucleus.
• Immediately after fertilization, the
ovule is known as the seed.
AFTER FERTILIZATION

The ovary wall becomes the pericarp - the

fruit wall, the whole ovary now being the
fruit. The function of the fruit is to protect the
seeds and to aid in their dispersal, e.g. by
an animal. That is why they can be brightly
coloured and sweet; animals will eat them
and scatter the seeds either at the time of
eating or when they are passed out of the
gut in defecation, unharmed.
Changes that occur in a flower after
fertilization
• Petals, stamen, calyx and style wither
• Ovary wall changes into pericarp
• Integument changes into seed coat/testa
• Zygote changes into embryo (by mitosis)
• Primary endosperm nucleus changes into
endosperm
• Whole ovule changes into seed
• Ovary develops and grows into fruit (under
the influence of gibberrellic hormone)
 ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION
• In animals, there are two individuals
involved, male and a female
• Special organs called gonads (testes and
ovaries) produce gametes (sperm cell and
egg cell)
• Male: Testes: Sperm
• Female: Ovaries: Ova
• Sperm and ovum fuses to form a zygote
in a process called fertilization
GAMETES
Sperm Ovum
• long with a tail and • spherical
head • large
• small • stationary
• locomotory • a lot of food stored in
• stores little food yolky cytoplasm
• has acrosome (tip • lacks acrosome
with lytic enzymes) • has a lot of
• nucleus prominent cytoplasm
but cytoplasm
negligible
SPERM
SPERM

• Acrosomes contain enzymes to digest

egg membrane
• Nucleus contains genetic material
• Mitochondria produce energy to move the
tail back and forth
• The lashing movement of the tail enables
the sperm to move/propulsion in fluid
medium towards the egg
• It is streamlined for faster/easier
movement/swimming to meet the egg.
OVUM
OVUM

• An egg cell (ovum) is one of the largest

cells in the human body and can just be
seen without using a microscope.
• Each egg cell has a haploid nucleus -
containing only half the number of
chromosomes of a normal cell nucleus. It
has a large cytoplasm which contains the
nutrients and mitochondria needed for
mitosis (cell division) after fertilization. And
each egg has a special cell membrane
which only allows one sperm to fertilize it.
FERTILIZATION IN ANIMALS

• There are two (2) types of

fertilization in animals:
1. External Fertilization (occurs
outside of the body of the
female)
2. Internal Fertilization (occurs
inside of the body of the
female)
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION

• External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic

environments where both eggs and sperm are
released into the water. After the sperm reaches
the egg, fertilization takes place.
• Most external fertilization happens during the
process of spawning where one or several
females release their eggs and the male(s)
release sperm in the same area, at the same
time. The spawning may be triggered by
environmental signals, such as water
temperature or the length of daylight.
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION

• Nearly all fish spawn, as do

crustaceans (such as crabs and
shrimp), mollusks (such as
oysters), squid, and echinoderms
(such as sea urchins and sea
cucumbers). Frogs, corals,
mollusks, and sea cucumbers
also spawn.
ADVANTAGES OF EXTERNAL
FERTILIZATION

• Large numbers produced therefore

many offspring per breeding season
• Female does not suffer gestation
stress
• Mother does not need to care for the
young except in a few species
• The surviving individuals are highly
selected for better survival
DISADVANTAGES OF EXTERNAL
FERTILIZATION
• many predators surround the eggs
before and after fertilization
• fewer chances of fertilization/ a lot of
gametes wasted
• embryo development at mercy of
environment
• large numbers of female gametes are
required therefore female gets much
exhausted
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

• Internal fertilization occurs most often in

terrestrial animals, although some aquatic
animals also use this method. Internal
fertilization may occur by the male directly
depositing sperm in the female during
mating. It may also occur by the male
depositing sperm in the environment,
usually in a protective structure, which a
female picks up to deposit the sperm in
her reproductive tract.
ADVANTAGES OF INTERNAL
FERTILIZATION

• more chances of fertilization

• fewer predators of oval/fertilized egg
protected in females body
• stable internal environment
• fewer gametes required
DISADVANTAGES OF INTERNAL
FERTILIZATION
• number of gametes fewer hence less
number of offspring
• less adapted for sudden change of
environment after birth
• in mammals females suffer gestation
stress
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
IN MAMMALS
FERTILIZATION IN MAMMALS

• Fertilization in mammals occurs internally. After

fertilization the fertilized egg is laid or develops
within the female body in a special structure,
the uterus.
• The egg laying mammals (MONOTREMES) Are
said to be oviparous. An example of an
oviparous mammal is the platypus.
• In some mammals, the zygote does not develop
fully within the uterus but completes
development within a special structure called
pouch as in the marsupials e.g. kangaroo.
FERTILIZATION IN MAMMALS
• In most mammals however, the zygote
develops fully into a young mammal which
resembles that adult.
• The ability to give birth to young as in placental
mammals is referred to as Viviparity. mammals
whose zygotes develop within the uterus have
mammary glands.
• The glands produce milk on which the young
ones feed on until they are able to feed on the
same food as adults. In these mammals,
parental care is highly developed.
MEIOSIS IN SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• One of the benefits of sexual reproduction is the
diversity it produces within a population. That
variety is a direct product of meiosis. Every sex
cell made from meiosis has a unique
combination of chromosomes. This means that
no two sperm or egg cells are genetically
identical. Every fertilization event produces new
combinations of traits. This is why siblings share
DNA with parents and each other, but are not
identical to one another.
MITOSIS IN SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Mitosis is important for sexual
reproduction indirectly. It allows the
sexually reproducing organism to
grow and develop from a single cell
into a sexually mature individual.
This allows organisms to continue to
reproduce through the generations.
CLEAVAGE
• The development of multi-cellular
organisms begins from a single-
celled zygote, which undergoes rapid
cell division to form the blastula. The
rapid, multiple rounds of cell division
are termed cleavage. After the
cleavage has produced over 100
cells, the embryo is called a blastula.
BLASTULA
• The blastula is usually a spherical layer of
cells (the blastoderm) surrounding a fluid-
filled or yolk-filled cavity (the blastocoel).
Mammals at this stage form a structure
called the blastocyst, characterized by an
inner cell mass that is distinct from the
surrounding blastula. During cleavage,
the cells divide without an increase in
mass; that is, one large single-celled
zygote divides into multiple smaller cells.
GASTRULATION
• The typical blastula is a ball of cells. The
next stage in embryonic development is
the formation of the body plan. The cells
in the blastula rearrange themselves
spatially to form three layers of cells in a
process known as gastrulation. During
gastrulation, the blastula folds upon itself
to form the three layers of cells. Each of
these layers is called a germ layer, which
differentiate into different organ systems.
TWINS

Identical Twins Fraternal Twins

is also known as is also known as
dizygotic happens when
monozygotic occurs two eggs have been
when one fertilized released by the mother
zygote (egg) splits into and then fertilized by
two separate embryos. two sperms. They can
be two boys, two girls or
They have almost one of each - a boy and
perfectly match DNA a girl. Fraternal twining
and look very alike, can be hereditary
though they can also which is passed down
from father to daughter.
look quite different.
THE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEMS
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
OVARIES

• are two oval cream colored structures

found in lower abdomen below the
kidneys.
• have several follicles that develop
and burst open to release/produce
mature ova
• secrete sex hormones (estrogen)
which initiate/control development of
secondary sexual characteristics
OVIDUCTS (FALLOPIAN TUBES)
• are tubes which conduct the ova produced by the
ovaries to the uterus
• are thin narrow and tubular to increase flowing
speed of semen containing sperms
• their lining contains cilia which propel the ovum
towards the uterus
• have peristaltic muscles that enable movement
of zygote/ovum to the uterus for implantation
• are fairly long to increase surface area for
fertilization
• Fertilization occurs in the upper part of the
oviduct.
UTERUS
• is a hollow muscular organ found in the
lower abdomen
• The embryo develops inside the uterus.
• The inner lining endometrium supplies
nutrients to embryo.
• The embryo is implanted into the inner
uterine wall - the endometrium which
nourishes the embryo.
• The thick muscles of the uterus assist in
parturition.
CERVIX
• has a ring of muscles that separates the uterus
from the vagina
• forms the opening to the uterus
• has valves that close the lower end of the uterus
to ensure continued pregnancy during gestation
period is capable of dilating
• has narrow entrance/neck-like entrance to uterus
that enables quick swimming of sperms to uterus
• has suction mechanism that draws up/pulls
sperms into uterus
• has a “W” shape that fits well with the glands of
the penis to ensure sperms are deposited at the
right point
VAGINA
• is a tube that opens to the outside and it acts as
the copulatory and birth canal through the vulva
• is elastic and muscular to enable good
accommodation or penetration of the penis thus
proper deposition of sperms and for easy
parturition
• allows menstrual flow
• has sensitive labial walls which secrete/produce
lubricating substances that
ensure/enable/facilitate good coition
• capable of considerable enlargement, due to
elastic muscles, to accommodate baby during
parturition
CLITORIS

• is a sensitive organ that stimulates orgasm

for women
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
TESTIS

• Each testis is a mass of numerous

coiled tubes called seminiferous
tubules.
•Each is enclosed within a scrotal sac
that suspends them between the
thighs.
•This ensures that sperms are
maintained at a temperature lower
than that of the main body.
SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES

• The lining of seminiferous tubules consists of

actively dividing cells which give rise to sperms.
• Between the seminiferous tubules are interstitial
cells which produce the male hormones called
androgens e.g. testosterone.
•The seminiferous tubules unite to form the
epididymis, which is a coiled tube where sperms
are stored temporarily.
• Vas deferens (sperm duct) is the tube through
which sperms are carried from testis to urethra.
•Seminal vesicle produces an alkaline secretion
which nourishes the spermatozoa.
PROSTATE GLAND
• produces an alkaline secretion to
neutralize vaginal fluids
• Cowpers' gland secretes an alkaline
fluid.
• All these fluids together with
spermatozoa form semen.
URETHRA

• is a long tube through which the semen is

conducted during copulation

• also removes urine from the bladder

PENIS
• is an intromittent organ which is
inserted into the vagina during
copulation
• is highly vascularized/spongy
• has a sensitive glands
• becomes erect to allow entry into the
vagina
SCROTUM

• contains the testes outside the body

on whose walls the process of
spermatogenesis takes place
• the process is favored by lower
temperature
• contains sertoli cells which nourish
sperms until they are mature
VAS DEFERENS

• muscular
• upon contraction pushes sperms out
and allows ejaculation of gametes
• produced in large numbers to
increase chances of fertilization
• the sperms have a tail for swimming/
large number of mitochondria to
provide energy/ allow swimming to
reach the egg
EPIDIDYMIS

• long and coiled for the purpose of

sperm storage
ACCESSORY GLANDS

• are seminal vesicles

• Cowper’s gland and prostate gland
• produce seminal fluid to provide a
medium/ nutrients for sperms to swim
 DEVELOPMENT OF
THE FERTILIZED EGG
CELL
IMPORTANT TERMS
• Implantation – the blastocyst implants
itself in the endometrium; start of
pregnancy
• Gestation – carrying the embryo
inside the uterus; can last up to 9
months in humans
• Human Embryo – first two months of
gestation.
• Human Fetus – 3-9 months of
gestation
GESTATION

• Week 1 - 3
- Zygote divides to form blastocyst.
- Implantation takes place.
- The three germ layers form
endoderm, mesoderm and
ectoderm.
- Nervous system starts to form.
GESTATION

• Week 4 - 7
- Development of circulating and
digestive systems.
- Further development of nervous
system and formation of
sensory organs
- All major internal organs are
developed.
- At week 5, heartbeat starts.
GESTATION

• Week 8 - 24
- All organs well developed
including
sex organs.
- Hair, finger and toe nails grow.
- Fetus move and eyelids open.
GESTATION

• Week 25 - 30
- The fully developed fetus
responds to touch and noises
and moves vigorously.
- The head turns and faces
downwards ready for
birth.
GESTATION

• Week 31 - 40
- Fetus increases in size.
- Around 37 weeks, birth occurs.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
MENSTRUAL PHASE (DAY 1 - 5)

• Menstrual phase begins on the first day of

menstruation and lasts till the 5th day of the
menstrual cycle. The following events occur
during this phase:
• The uterus sheds its inner lining of soft tissue
and blood vessels which exits the body from the
vagina in the form of menstrual fluid.
• The female may experience abdominal cramps.
These cramps are caused by the contraction of
the uterine and the abdominal muscles to expel
the menstrual fluid.
FOLLICULAR PHASE (DAY 1 - 13)

• The pituitary gland secretes a hormone

that stimulates the egg cells in the ovaries
to grow.
• One of these egg cells begins to mature in
a sac-like-structure called follicle. It takes
13 days for the egg cell to reach maturity.
• While the egg cell matures, its follicle
secretes a hormone that stimulates the
uterus to develop a lining of blood vessels
and soft tissue called endometrium
OVULATION PHASE (DAY 14)

• On the 14th day of the cycle, the pituitary

gland secretes a hormone that causes the
ovary to release the matured egg cell. The
released egg cell is swept into the
fallopian tube by the cilia of the fimbriae.
Fimbriae are finger like projections
located at the end of the fallopian tube
close to the ovaries and cilia are slender
hair like projections on each Fimbria.
LUTEAL PHASE (DAY 15 - 28)

• The egg cell released during the ovulation

phase stays in the fallopian tube for 24
hours.
• If a sperm cell does not impregnate the
egg cell within that time, the egg cell
disintegrates.
• The hormone that causes the uterus to
retain its endometrium gets used up by
the end of the menstrual cycle. This
causes the menstrual phase of the next
cycle to begin.
CONTRACEPTIVE
METHODS
CONTRACEPTION

• You can differentiate between

different types of contraception
based on how they work: there are
barrier methods (e.g. condoms or a
cervical cap), hormonal methods
(e.g. the pill), intrauterine devices
(IUD) and sterilization.
CONTRACEPTION
Most types of contraceptives work by:
a)preventing an egg from being
released every month (hormones)
b)preventing sperms from reaching
the egg (barrier and some IUD
methods)
c)blocking the reproductive function –
in men or women (sterilization)
d)preventing a fertilized egg from
implanting in the uterus (hormones)
PILL
• The pill can come in two forms: the
combined contraceptive pill (containing the
hormones estrogen and progestin) or the
mini-pill (only progestin). In the case of the
mini-pill, it's important that you take your
pill every day at the same time (you should
not be late by more than three hours).

• Keep in mind that the pill does not provide

any protection against STIs and that a
doctor's prescription is required to buy it.
MALE CONDOM
• Condoms are usually made of latex, but if you
are allergic to latex, some brands also
specialize in condoms made of polyurethane or
lambskin. These two are also compatible with
lube (latex condoms are not, unless with water-
based lubricant); however lambskin condoms do
not provide protection against STIs.

• For safety reasons, make sure you use a new

condom each time you have sex.
FEMALE CONDOM
• The pill can come in two forms: the
combined contraceptive pill (containing the
hormones estrogen and progestin) or the
mini-pill (only progestin). In the case of the
mini-pill, it's important that you take your
pill every day at the same time (you should
not be late by more than three hours).

• Keep in mind that the pill does not provide

any protection against STIs and that a
doctor's prescription is required to buy it.
DIAPHRAGM

The diaphragm must be coated with

spermicide each time before sex and a
doctor needs to show you how to use it
(you need a prescription to get one). It
is inserted at least six hours before sex
and it needs to be removed after 24
hours for cleaning. Depending on the
material and type of the diaphragm, it
can be reused many times.
INTRAUTERINE DEVICE (IUD)

You have the choice between two types of

IUDs: hormonal or copper-based devices.
Hormonal and copper IUDs are part of the
few long-term solutions, meaning that you
can keep them inside the vagina for up to
five or ten years respectively.
SPERMICIDAL FOAM

The foam is active immediately, so it should

be inserted within 30 minutes of having sex.
Two applications may be better than one.
The foam kills the sperm while also blocking
the cervix (to prevent any surviving sperm
from entering the uterus). The applicator
may be washed with soap and water, stored
in a clean, dry place and used again.
NATURAL CONTRACEPTIONS
• VASECTOMY
– entails cutting the vas deferens
• TUBAL LIGATION
– entails cutting the fallopian tube.
• COITUS INTERRUPTUS
- Withdrawal Method
• ABSTINENCE
- No sexual intercourse for the men
and women (i.e. Partners)
Assignment

• Prepare for the long test tomorrow.

• Draw and label the following and submit
on Monday, January 28, 2019.
1. Complete Flower
2. Male Reproductive System of a Human
3. Female Reproductive System of a Human
Use short bond papers with one inch
margins on all sides.
THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING. :)