CHAPTER 2

THE BIOLOGY OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS

Crops in agriculture, is a plant or plant product that can be grown and harvested
extensively or intensively for profit or subsistence.

In this chapter, we are going to know the biological status of agricultural crops, why
do scientists classify plants and what is the importance of naming the organisms based on the
scientific approach.

Module 4

Classification and Taxonomy of Agricultural Crops

Overview

For order and organization, and logical naming: imagine the difficulty in finding a
certain book in a disorganized library! It would be similarly difficult to find information
about a certain organism if organisms are not grouped according to similarities.

Within plant kingdom, no species are exactly the same; some are almost similar while
others are very different from one another. Their similarities and differences are the basic for
classification.

In this module, we are going to discuss the importance of classifying the agricultural
crops for the benefit of the human being.

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students must:

 Discuss the purpose of classifying agricultural crops and
 Distinguish crop plants according to its scientific names.

Content Focus

What is the purpose of CLASSIFICATION?

For logical naming: common names are not adequate because common
names vary from country to country, even from region to region; classification of
plants led to the so-called binomial nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in the 18 th
century whereby a plant is given a two-word Latin name.

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 Bases for Classification

 Aristotle -classified plants based on structure and size (e.g. herbs, shrubs and
trees); i.e. Morphology.

 Linnaeus - classified plants based on structure only, i.e. different species with
similar structural features were classified together in a broader group.

 Modern classification of plants is based on phylogeny (i.e. the evolution of

plants) and therefore relies largely on evolutionary relationships, thus modern
genetics has become a very important tool of taxonomy; plant characters such as
size, shape, color flower characteristics and kinds of food reserves are likewise
used as bases for modern classification of plants/crops.

Botanical System of Classification

 The botanical classification of crop plants is based on the International Code

Botanical Nomenclature for cultivated plants. Plant Taxonomy is the science that
deals with classification, nomenclature and identification of plants.

 This system of classifying plants or crops utilizes 7 categories (Kingdom,

Division, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species); in many instances, an
additional category (Variety) is needed.

 Grouping Plants

 Crop plants are grouped according to their similarities and differences in

structure, development and characteristics. In modern way of classification,
the plants are grouped starting from Kingdom and proceeds to division,
classes, order, family, genus and species.

Using the botanical system of crop classification, the rice hybrid variety “Mestizo”
can be classified as follows:

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Liliopsidae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Graminaceae
Genus: Oryza
Species: sativa
Variety: Mestizo

 Kingdom – all plants are grouped according to the same plant kingdoms
compared to another kingdom or animal kingdom.
Ex. Plant Kingdom – Plantae
Animal Kingdom – Animalae
 Division – is a grouped of related classes under similar kingdom. A name
ends with the word “phyta”.
Ex. Magnoliophyta

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  Classes – is a group of related orders. The name of each classes always ends
with “ae”
Ex. Liliopsidae
 Orders – is a grouped of closely related families which each has certain
common traits but differ in certain aspects. Rhe names under order level of
classification are with ending “ales”
Ex. Cyperales
 Family – is a grouped of closely related genera and names end with “ceae”
Ex. Graminaceae
 Genus – a group of closely related species.
Ex. Oryza
 Species – a group of specific specie.
Ex. sativa

 Naming of Plants
 Is important to crop production because it is the basis for discussion and
identification of plants. Crop scientist identify name and establish
relationship between plants through the use of taxonomy. Crop scientist
around the world communicates in an exact manner through the use of
taxonomy.

Three ways in naming plants

1. Common Name – usually in English for instance “Banana”.

2. Local Name – varies from place to place depending upon the spoken dialect in
a certain place. Ex. “saging”
3. Scientific Name – is written in Latin words. The advance of using Latin is
that, elements of this language are known by most scientists and it constitutes
an international language.
Ex. Musa sapientum (scientific name of banana)
Musa (genus)
sapientum (specie)

Note: the first letter of the Genus must be capitalized and the specie must
be a small letter.

Agronomic Classification

 Basis for classification is mainly the use or purpose for growing the crop
regardless of scale of production.

 Groups of agronomic crops include cereals (e.g. rice, corn, and wheat), legumes
or pulses (e.g. mungbean, peanut, and soybean), root crops (e.g. sweet potato
and cassava), annual fiber crops (e.g. cotton, jute and kenaf), special-purpose
crops (e.g. green manure crops or cover crops), pasture or forage crops (e.g.
Napier grass, paragrass, and Stylosanthes sp.) and industrial crops (e.g.
sugarcane).

A. Cereal or Grain
 Crops
Common Name Local Name Scientific Name
1. Rice Palay Oryza sativa
2. Corn Mais Zea mays
3. Millet Dawa Eleusinecoracana, Penisetum
typhoides
4. Sorghum ____ Sorghum vulgare
5. Wheat Trigo Triticum aestivum
B. Grain Legumes or
Pulses
1. Common pea Chicharo Pisum sativum
2. Cowpea Paayap, Kibal Vigna sinensis
3.Hyacinth bean Bataw Lablab purpureus
4. Kidney Bean, Snap Red Bean, Habichuelas Phaseolus vulgaris
Bean
5. Lima bean Patani Phaseolus lanatus
6. Mungbean Munggo Vigna radiata
7. Peanut Mani Arachis hypogea
8. Pigeon pea Kadios Cajanus cajan
9. Soybean Utaw Glycine max
C. Root and Tuber
Crops
1. Arrow root --- Maranta arundinacea
2. Cassava, Tapioca Kamoteng kahoy, Balanghoy Manihot utillisima
3. Elephant’s ear Biga, Badiang Alocasia macorrhiza
4. Gabi, Taro Gabi Colocasia esculentum
5. Sweet potato Kamote Ipomoea batatas
6. White potato, Irish Patatas Solanum tuberosum
potato
7. Yam Ubi Dioscorea alata
8. Yam bean Sinkamas Pacchirhizus erosus
9. Yacon Yakon Polymnia sanchifolia
D. Fiber Crops
1. Abaca, Manila hemp Abaca Musa textiles
2. Cotton Bulak, Algodon Gossypium hirsutum
3. Cotton tree Kapok, Doldol Ceiba pentandra
4. Jute --- Corchorus olitorius
5. Kenaf --- Hibiscus sabdariffa
6. Maguey, Sisal hemp --- Agave cantala
E. Pasture and Forage
Crops
1. Carabao grass Paspalum conjugatum
2. Guinea grass Panicum maximum
3. Kennedy ruzi Brachiaria ruziziensis
4. Napier grass Pennisetum purpureum
5. Pangola grass Digitaria decumbens
6. Para grass Brachiaria mutica
7. Signal grass Brachiaria decumbens
8. Stargrass Cynodon plectostachyus
F. Improved Legume
Pasture Crops
1. Calopo Munggu-munggo Calopogonium muconoides
2. Centro --- Centrosema pubescens
3. Ipil-ipil --- Leucaena leucocephala
4. Kudzu --- Pueraria phaseoloides
5. Siratro --- Macroptilium atropurpureum
6. Stylo --- Tylosanthes guyanensis
7. Townsville stylo --- Stylosanthes humilis
G. Industrial Crops
1. Castor bean Tangan-tangan Ricinus communis
2. Physic nut Tubang bakod, Tuba-tuba, Jatropha curcas
Kasla
3. Sugarcane Tubo Saccharum officinarum
4. Tobacco Tabako Nicotiana tabacum

Horticultural Classification

 Classification is based mainly on cultural requirement and the ultimate use of the
crop; within each group, subgroupings are created based on nature, culture, use and
growth habit of the plants,
For example, vegetables as a group has about 7 subgroups (leafy
vegetables, cole or crucifers, root and bulb crops, legumes or pulses, solanaceous
crops, cucurbits, tree vegetables); fruit crops have also subgroups (tree fruits, nut
fruits, small fruits); plantation crops are sub-grouped as (oil crops, fiber crops,
beverage crops, spices, condiments and essences, latexes and resins, medicinal and
botanical pesticides)
.
 Horticultural Classification of Plants: Olericultural or Vegetable Crops,
Pomological or Fruit Crops, Floricultural or Ornamental Crops, and Plantation
Crops.

A. Olericultural or
Vegetable Crops
Common Name Local Name Scientific Name
1. Asparagus Asparagus Asparagus officinalis
2. Bell pepper, sweet Atsal Capsicum annum
pepper
3. Bitter gourd Ampalaya, Paliya Momordica charantia
4. Bottle gourd Upo Lagenaria siceraria
5. Bush sitao --- Vigna sinensis x V. sesquipedales
6. Cabbage Repolyo Brassica oleracea
7. Carrot Karot Daucos carota
8. Chile pepper, Hot Sili Capsicum frutescens
pepper
9. Cucumber Pipino Cucumis sativus
10. Eggplant Talong Solanum melongena
11. Garlic Bawang, Ahos Allium sativum
12. Ginger Luya Zingiber officinale
13. Horse radish Malunggay, Moringa oleifera
Kamunggay
14. Lettuce Letsugas Lactuca sativa
15. Luffa, Sponge gourd Patola Luffa acutangula, Luffa
cylindrica
16. Malabar night shade Alugbate, Libato Basella rubra
17. Muskmelon Melon Cucumis melo
18. Mustard Mustasa Brassica juncea
19. Okra, Gumbo, Lady Okra Abelmoschus esculentus
finger
20. Onion Sibuyas Allium cepa
21. Pechay Pechay Brassica napus
22. Pole sitao Sitaw, Balatong, Vigna sesquipedales
Latoy, String bean
23. Raddish Labanos Raphanus sativus
24. Sweet potato Kamote-kamote Ipomoea batatas
25. Squash Kalabasa Cucurbita maxima
26. Tomato Kamatis Lycopersicon esculentum
27. Turmeric plant Dilao,Duwaw, Curcuma longa
Kalawag
29. Winged bean, Sequidellas,Balagay,Cala Psophocarpus tetragonolobus
Asparagus bean mismis

B. Pomological or Fruit
Crops
Common Name Local Name Scientific Name

1. Acerola, Acerola Malpighia glabra

Barbados cherry,
West Indian cherry
2. Alligator Pear, Guaca Avocado Persea americana
mole
3. Apple Mansanas Mallus domestica
4. Custard apple Anonas Annona reticulata
5. Soursop Guyabano, Ubana Annona muricata
6. Sugar apple Atis Annona squamosa
7. Breadfruit Rimas, Kulo (seedless) Artocarpus altilis
8. Breadnut Kamansi (seeded) Artocarpus altilis “Seminifera”
9. Jackfruit Langka, Nangka Artocarpus heterophyllus
10. Marang Marang Artocarpus odoratissimus
11. Cucumber tree. Kamias, Iba Averrhoa bilimbi
Bilimbi
12. Starfruit, Carambola Balimbing Averrhoa carambola
13. Cashew Kasoy Anacardium occidentale
14. Mandarin Sintones Citrus reticulata
15. Pomelo, Pummelo Kabugaw, Buongon Citrus maxima
16. Sweet orange Kahel Citrus sinensis
17. Velvet apple Mabolo, Kamagong Diospyros blancoi
18. Durian Durian, Dulian Durio zibethinus
19. Grape Ubas Vitis vinifera
20. Guava Bayabas Psidium guajava
21. Langsat Lansones Lansium domestichum
Buahan
22. Lychee Letias Litchi chinensis
23. Mango Mangga Mangifera indica
Mangga
24. Mangosteen mangostana Garcinia mangostana

25. Melon tree, Kapayas Carica papaya

Pawpaw,Papaya
26. Banana Saging Musa spp.
Saging
27. Passion fruit, Granadilla Passiflora edulis
Passionara, Pasionara
28. Giant granadilla --- Passiflora quadrangularis
29. Pilinut Pili Canarium ovatum
30. Pineapple Piña Ananas comosus
31. Pomegranate Granada Punica granatum
32. Rambutan Rambutan, Usan Nephelium lappaceum
33. Spanish joint fir, Bago, Banago Gnetum gnemon
Melinjo Caimito Chrysophyllum cainito
34. Star Apple
35. Naseberry Chico Manilkara zapota
36. Santol, Kechapi, Santol Sandoricum koetjapi
Sentol
37. Spanish Plum Siniguelas Spondias purpurea
38. Bell fruit, Water Tambis Syzygium aqueum
apple
39. Black plum Duhat, Lomboy Syzygium cumini
40. Tamarind Sampalok, Sambag Tamarindus indica
C.Ornamental Crops
C.1 Flowering Ornamental
Common Name Scientific Name
1. African violet Saintpaullia ionantha
2. Anthurium, Flamingo flower Anthurium andraeanum
3. Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum morifolium
4. Crown of Thorns Euphorbia sp.
5. Gladiolus Gladiolus spp.
6. Orchids Plalaenopsis, Vanda, Dendrobium spp. etc
7. Rose Rosa spp.
8. Rose of China (Gumamela) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

9. Sampaguita Jasminum sambac

10. Santan Ixora coccinea
11. Temple flower, Graveyard flower Plumiera acutifolia
local name: Kalachuchi
 C.2 Foliage Ornamental
1. Begonia
2. Caladium
Local name: Corazon de Maria
3. Croton
Local name: San Fransisco
4. Coleus
Local name: Mayana
5. Dumbcane
Local name: Bakia
6. Duranta
Local name: Duranta
7. Dracaena
Belgian evergreen
Fortune plant
Spotted leaf
Tricolor
8. Ferns
Birds nest fern
Local name: Pakpak lawin
Boston fern
Fishtail fern
Giant staghorn fern
Local name: Capa de Leon
9. Fig, Strangler fig, Ficus
Local name: Balete
Benjamin fig
Local name: Balete
Indian Rubber tree
local name: Niog-niogan
10. Gout plant
Local name: Ginseng
11. Kamuning
Local name: Kamuning
12. Palms
Macarthur palm
Manila palm, Christmas palm
Local name: Bungang Tsina
Royal palm
Ruffled Fan palm
Local name: Anahaw
Yellow palm
13. Poinsettia,
Begonia spp.
Caladium bicolor
Codiaeum variegatum
Coleus blumei
Dieffenbachia amoena
Duranta repens
Dracaena sanderana
Dracaena fragrams
Dracaena surcolosa
Dracaena marginata “Tricolor”
Asplenium nidus
Nephrolepis exaltata
Microsorium punctatum syn. Polypodium
punctatum
Platycerium grande
Ficus spp.
Ficus benjamina
Ficus elastica
Ficus pseudopalma
Jatropha podagrica
Murraya sp.
Ptychosperma macarthurii
Vietchia mervilli
Roystonea regia
Livistona rotundifolia
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens
Euphorbia pulcherrima
 December plant
14. Song of Jamaica Pleomele reflexa
15. Song of India Pleomele reflexa “Variegata”
16. Traveller’s tree, Traveller’s palm Ravenala madagascariensis

D. Plantation Crops
1. Cacao --- Theobroma cacao
2. Coconut Niyog, Lubi Cocos nucifera
3. Coffe Kape Coffea spp. (Coffea
canephora etc)
4. Rubber tree --- Hevea brasiliensis

Other Methods of Classification

 Based on Growth Habit

Vine – is any plant (herbaceous stem) with a growth habit of trailing or

scandent (that is, climbing) stems.
Liana – any of the various usually woody vines especially of tropical rain
forests that root in the ground.
Shrub – a woody plant which is smaller than a tree and has several main
stems arising at or near the ground.
Tree – a woody perennial plants, typically having a single stem or trunk
growing to a considerable height and bearing lateral branches at some
distance from the ground.

 Based on Habitat

Terrestrial – ground/land plants

Mesophyte - adapted to moderate conditions for growth
Xerophyte - adapted to little or no water or moisture
Aquatic/ hydrophyte - water plants, on or under water
Epiphyte - hanging plants but non-parasitic, air
Halophyte - grows in excessively salt-rich/ saline conditions
Sciophyte - grows in low light intensity area/ shade-loving plants
Epiphyte - grows upon or attached to a living plant usually
deriving only physical support and not nutrition from the host
although they may sometimes damage the host.
Saprophyte - non-green plant that leaves on dead or
decaying plant or animal matter.
Parasite - attaches to a host for water and/or nutrients

 Descriptive Classification According to Leaf Retention

Evergreen – a plant that retains green leaves throughout the

year.
Deciduous – a tree or shrubs that shedding its leaves annually.
 Based on Life Span

Annual – live for a short time, in 1 growing season, perpetuated by seed and
die after producing flowers and seeds.

Biennial – live for 2 growing seasons; first season characterized by

accumulation of food reserves while second season producing
reproductive parts.

Perennial – live for > 2 growing seasons, includes trees and shrubs, and
herbaceous plants that produce underground modified stems or roots.

Other Classifications

Cash crops - crops grown for added income

Green manure crops - legume crops grown to provide nitrogen
in the soil
Cover crops - crops grown for soil erosion control
Dye and tannin-producing crops - special purpose crops for dye and
tannins
Hedge crops - crops grown around the main crop
Biocidal crops - crops grown intended for products that can control other
organisms
Trap crops - crops intended to attract pests and pathogens to avoid
infestation or infection of the main crop
Repellant crops - crops that repel pests and pathogens
Natural enemies’ attractant crops - crops that attract natural enemies for
effective biological control
Self- Check: (2 points each)

1. Write the correct scientific name of the following crops/plants.

Common Name Scientific Name

1. Santol _____________________________
2. Coconut _____________________________
3. Gumamela _____________________________
4. Water apple _____________________________
5. Pine Apple _____________________________
6. Rice _____________________________
7. Spanish plum _____________________________
8. Sampaguita _____________________________
9. Mango _____________________________
10. Corn _____________________________
11. Banana _____________________________
12. Okra _____________________________
13. Bird nest Fern _____________________________
14. Durian _____________________________
15. Cabbage _____________________________
16. Apple _____________________________
17. Mangosteen _____________________________
18. Lettuce _____________________________
19. Yacon _____________________________
20. Guava _____________________________

Self- Reflect: 100 Words (10 points)

2. Did you think that Binomial System of Nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus is really
helpful in naming and classifying of organisms in the world? Why?
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References

Poehlman, J.M. and D.A. Sleper. 1996. Breeding Field Crops. Iowa State
University Press, USA.

Rimando, Tito J. Fundamentals of Crop Science. Department of Horticulture, College of

Agriculture, U.P Los Baños, Laguna. 2004.
 Module 5

The Nature and Composition of Plants

Overview

Plant is a living thing that grows in the ground; it is one of the most prominent factors
why all living aspects of the environment survived. Human and animals and even insects
depend wholly in the plants in order to survive from day to day basis.

In this module, we are going to discuss the functions of internal and external parts of
the plants.

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students must:

 Elaborate the anatomical structure of a plant and
 Identify the morphological structure of a plant body.

Content Focus

What is the Composition of PLANTS?

 A Plant body or system made up of organs made up of tissues made up of cells

made up of organelles made up of molecules made up of elements.

 Cell - is the basic unit of an organism.

- A usually microscopic structure containing nuclear and cytoplasmic
material enclosed by a semipermeable membrane.

32
 Basic Parts of a Plant Cell

Illustration: D.J. Caasi

Organelles and other Components of a Plant Cell

1. Cell Wall - for cell support and regulation

Components of the cell wall:

A. Middle Lamella - outermost layer, glue that binds adjacent cells,
composed primarily of pectic polysaccharides.
B. Primary Wall - wall deposited by cells before and during active
growth; comprised of pectic polysaccharides, cross-linking glycans/
hemicellulose; cellulose and protein; All plant cells have a middle
lamella and primary wall.
C. Secondary Wall - some cells deposit additional layers inside the
primary wall. This occurs after growth stops or when the cells begin
to differentiate or specialize; is mainly for support and is comprised
primarily of cellulose and lignin.
2. Plasma or Cell Membrane - Cell boundary; selectively permeable (some can pass,
some cannot); separates the organelles and cell parts; bilayer of phospholipids with
inserted protein.
3. Nucleus - contains the genetic materials for heredity (DNA)
4. Cytosol/ Cytoplasm - gel-like matrix within the cell in which other structures are
embedded; refers to the cell contents inside the membrane.
5. Mitochondrion - powerhouse of the cell; sites of cellular respiration (process by
which energy/ ATP is released from fuels such as sugar).
6. Ribosomes - sites of protein synthesis (translation).
7. Endoplasmic Reticulum - site of lipids and membrane synthesis (smooth ER); also
contains ribosomes (rough ER) for protein synthesis; function in transport (a type
of cell 'highway' system) and support.

33
 8. Peroxisome - membrane sac containing enzymes for metabolizing waste products
from photosynthesis, fats and amino acids.
9. Glyoxisome - membrane sac containing enzymes for fat metabolism,
especially common in seeds.
10. Golgi Apparatus - site of processing and packaging cellular components,
especially for export.
11. Microtubules involved in the cell cytoskeleton (for support), cell movements
(cilia, flagella) and cell division (spindle).
12. Plasmodesmata - “cell bridges/ tunnels”

Parts unique to plants

13. Plastids - double membrane-bound organelles in plants which contain their own
DNA (in nucleoid region) and ribosomes.
Types of plastids:
A. Proplastid - small, precursors to the other plastid types, found in young
cells, or actively growing tissues.
B. Chromoplast - non-photosynthetic, colored plastid; give some fruits
(tomatoes, carrots) and flowers their color.
C. Amyloplast/ leucoplast - colorless and starch-storing plastid.
D. Etioplast - plastid whose development into a chloroplast has been
arrested (stopped). These contain a dark crystalline body, prolamellar
body, which is essentially a cluster of thylakoids in a somewhat tubular
form.
E. Chloroplast - site of photosynthesis (energy capture). They contain
photosynthetic pigments including chlorophyll, carotenes and
xanthophylls. The chloroplast is packed with membranes, called
thylakoids. The thylakoids may be stacked into pancake- like piles
called grana (granum, singular). The "liquidy" material in the
chloroplast is the stroma.
14. Vacoule - large, central cavity containing fluid called cell sap; for water storage and
waste disposal.

Plant Tissue System

 Tissue - made up of different types of cells.

 Meristematic tissues - actively dividing and differentiating cells found in growing

point.
Apical meristem - shoots or root apex; upward and downward growth; below is
the development and differentiation of the apical meristem to different types of
tissues:
Lateral meristem - sides of roots or stems; sideward growth
Intercalary meristem - between internode of grasses; regrowth of
cut grasses
 Permanent tissues - mature, fully differentiated cells
 Simple tissues - only one type of cell
Parenchyma - thin-walled cells, makes up a large portion of many plant
organs, seat of plant activities
Collenchyma - thick-walled elongated cells, support cells/ mechanical support
during growth.
Sclerenchyma - thick-walled highly specialized, heavily lignified, mature or
non-living:
 Fibers - long & tapered
 Sclereid - short & irregular; gritty texture (chico)

 Complex tissues - more than 1 type of cell

Phloem = sieve tube + companion cells + ray cells + fiber cells +
parenchyma cells
Xylem = tracheids + vessel element + fiber cells + parenchyma

General Anatomical Regions of a Plant Body

 Epidermis - outermost layer, serves as protection

 Cortex - next layer to epidermis
 Pericycle - found in root branches; layers of cells adjacent to the cortex,
found in roots.
 Vascular bundle:
Phloem: through its sieve tubes, transport food/dissolved sugar;
passage way
Xylem: water passage way
 Pith - hollow opening in the center of the
stem; absent in most roots.

 Anatomical Regions of a Leaf

 Epidermis - “skin”/ outer covering; a continuous “skin” that covers both
sides of a leaf. It is formed by a single layer of transparent, interlocking
cells, which are covered by the cuticle, designed to protect the leaf’s
internal tissues from excessive dehydration. Numerous openings called
stomates (stomata). The majority or all of which are located on the
undersides of leaves, perforate the epidermis and permit a two-way
 exchange between the atmosphere and the inside of the leaf of such gases
as carbon dioxide, water vapor and oxygen.
 Mesophyll - cells containing plastids especially chloroplasts; contains the
food-producing machinery of the leaf, the chloroplasts. These are the
specialized bodies imbedded within the cytoplasm of the mesophyll cells
which contain chlorophyll, the green pigment which is the basis of
photosynthesis.
 Vascular bundles (veins) - for translocations; composed of specialized
strands of tissue which are located about halfway between the upper and
lower surfaces of the leaf and consists of two kinds of tissue: thick-walled,
woody xylem cells which conduct water and provide mechanical support,
and thin-walled phloem cells which serve as pipelines for liquid foods.
Together they form a conducting system which, branching from one or
several main veins, permeates the entire leaf.
Xylem - thick-walled, woody cells
Phloem - thin-walled cells

Part of a Plant Leaf

 The Vascular vessels

 Xylem - translocate water and mineral ions from the roots to the stem and
the leaves
 Phloem - translocate inorganic substances and sugars from the leaves to
the parts of the plant the need them, e.g flowers, fruits and roots
 Lignification: the process in which lignin wax is being laid down on the inside of
cell walls, resulting in death, but not necessarily dysfunction, of the cells. Also,
for the same reason, used as a generic term to describe the process when woody
plant tissues harden.
 Lignin - a complex carbohydrate polymer making up about 25% of the
wood in trees. It is also found in the cell walls of sclerenchyma tissues and
vessels, fibres and tracheids at maturity. It increases the strength of such
tissues.
Morphological Parts of the Plant Body

Shoot - above ground structures; central axis with appendages

Root - below ground structures

Main components of the shoot system are:

Stem, Leaf, Flower and Fruits

 Stem - important for translocation (transport of sugar, minerals and water);

supports the leaves, connects the leaves and roots; provides storage.
 Buds - embryonic stems
 Arrangements - Alternate, opposite or whorled
 Position - terminal, lateral, accessory, or adventitious
 Nature of organs - leaf, flower or mixed
 Structure and growth pattern - single upright or prostate
branched “creepers”

Modified stem

 Tendril - a specialized stem, leaf or petiole with a threadlike shape that is

used by climbing plants for support and attachment, generally by twining
around whatever it touches; does not have a lamina or blade, but can
photosynthesize; can be formed from modified shoots, or modified
leaves.
 Stem tendril - located on opposite side of the stem to that of the foliage
leaf on the same node; may be branched or bear small leaves
 Rhizome - enlarged stem for storage and reproduction; with nodes and
internodes; leaf buds grow upward
 Tuberous stem - enlarged stem for storage and reproduction; with bud
eyes (where foliage grows)
 Corm - vertically growing enlarged stem; with nodes and internodes
 Runners or stolons - Long slender branches which arise from the base of
the stem growing horizontally (grasses) or obliquely downwards.
 Phylloclades/ cladodes - flattened or cylindrical green stems
 Offshoots or suckers - daughter plants arising from a main plant
 Bulbils - found in the axils of leaves, similar to underground stem with
cork, has parenchymatous ground tissue with scattered vascular bundles

 Leaf
 Principal photosynthetic organ of a plant
 absorbing organ for chemical and micronutrients
(ectodermata)
 transpiration organ (water regulation, stomatal opening/closing)
 as storage organ
 as plant propagule
 as ornamental for pigment color (aesthetics)

Modified leaf

Bulbs - vertically-growing underground shoots with fleshy

leaves and a short stem

Differences between Dicot and Monocot leaves

Characteristic Dicot Monocot
Leaves Broad Narrow
Leaf venation (vein Netted/ reticulated parallel
arrangement)
Leaf sheath None Containing
Branching Bushy Single stem with tiller
Stem Woody Herbaceous
Flower parts Multiple of 4 or 5 Multiple of 3
Mature root system Primary, adventitious or Adventitious
both
  Flower - reproductive organ of the plant; gives rise to the fruit; Plant structures
serving for sexual reproduction with seeds as the final product. Produced by
spermatophytes or flowering plants (seed plants).

Two large groups of spermatophytes

Gymnosperms - evolutionarily older and more primitive group (systematically),
no class on their own but enclose two real classes that do not have the same
ancestors: conifers and cycadeans.
Angiosperms - usually seen as the original flowering plants, do all belong to just
one class; represent the overwhelming majority of species.

Parts of a flower
Perianth –The outer parts of a flower consisting of calyx and corolla.
Calyx - sepals (protects growing bud)
Corolla - petals (attracts pollinators)
Androecium - the male reproductive organ comprising of the
stamens with each stamen consisting of a filament and an anther
Staminodes - sterile stamens
Gynoecium - the female reproductive organ which includes the carpel which is
made up of the ovary and a stigma (contain one or more ovules)
Apocarpy or choricarpy - each carpel forms a pistil
Coenocarpy - several carpels form a pistil; one or more carpels may be
combined to a pistil (ovary, style, and stigma)
Pistil - made up of enlarged ovary (with embryo sac), a columnar style, and distal
stigma (receives the pollen).

 Morphology of the androecium and gynoecium

Hypogynous - the perianth is attached to the receptacle below
the pistil
 Perigynous - the perianth and stamens are borne on the rim of a
concave structure in the depression of which the pistil is borne
 Epigynous ovary -blossom seems to arise upon or above the ovary
 Types of plants depending on sexes:
 Androgynous or hermaphroditic - flowers that contain both
androecium and gynoecium; e.g. papaya
 Monoecious - both male and female flowers live on one plant;
e.g. corn (tassel is the male part, and the silk is the female part)
 Dioecious - plants with male and female flowers borne on
 separate plants; e.g. squash

 Types of flowers

 Complete flower - all four floral organs (sepal, petal, stamen

and pistil) are present in the same flower structure, e.g. Gumamela or China
rose (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis).

 Incomplete flower - lacks any one or more of these parts; e.g.

grasses. Mainly wind-pollinated and are incomplete, lacking both sepals and
petals. Relying on wind to accomplish pollination, there is no need for these
organs to attract pollinators.

 Perfect or bisexual flowers - flowers that contain both sexual

flower parts (stamen and pistil).

 Imperfect or unisexual flowers - contain either stamen or pistil

only (regardless of whether they lack sepals or petals).
• Staminate flowers (male flower) - bear stamens only
• Pistillate flowers (female flower) - bear pistils only

 Flower Types Affecting Pollination

Plants with flower synchrony based on the maturation of the male (stamen)
and female (pistil) flower parts

 Dichogamous: when the two organs mature at different time.

• Protandrous flowers (n. protandry), as in carrots - are those in which
the stamens mature ahead of the pistils so that by the time that the
stigma becomes receptive, the pollen grains within the same floral
structure are already shed.
• Protogyny is the reverse of protandry - The stigma of protogynous
flowers, as in the water lilies (Nymphaea spp.), becomes receptive while
the pollen grains are still immature.

 Autogamous - plants self-pollinate within the same flower (autogamy);

Further divided based on their opening or closing during the pollination
period (pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma):
• Chasmogamous flowers (n. chasmogamy) - are open during the period
of pollination and are generally cross-pollinated.
• Cleistogamous flowers (n. cleistogamy) - flowers do not open during the
period of pollination and thus these plants are largely self-pollinated.
Ex. tomato, lettuce and some rice species.

 Fruit - a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower,
one or more ovaries, and in some cases accessory tissues; the means by which these
plants disseminate seeds; results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the
gynoecium of the flower(s) forms all or part of the fruit; contains the seed needed
for dispersal and survival of the species.

There are three general modes of fruit development

 Apocarpous fruits - develop from a single flower having one or more separate
carpels, and they are the simplest fruits.
  Syncarpous fruits - develop from a single gynoecium having two or more
carpels fused together.
 Multiple fruits - form from many different flowers.

 Kinds of Fruits
1. Simple fruits - can be either dry or fleshy, and result from the ripening of a
simple or compound ovary in a flower with only one pistil

A. Dry fruits: not fleshy; pericarp (fruit wall) no distinct three layers
 Dehiscent capsular: opening to discharge seeds
 Legume/pulse/pod: pea
 Follicle: single carpel, opens by one suture; milkweed
 Silique: radish, cabbage, mustard
 Silicle/Silicula (syn. silique but with shorter fruit): shepherd’s
purse/ Capsella
 Capsule: Brazil nut, Cotton

 Indehiscent achenial: not opening to discharge seeds

 Achene: strawberry
 Utricle (similar to Achene): beet
 Caryopsis: wheat, rice
 Cypsela: achene-like from individual florets in a capitulum; e.g.
dandelion
 Nut: hazelnut, acorn, nut of cashew
 Samara: elm

 Schizocarpic splitting: splits at maturity into two or more closed,

oneseeded parts; e.g. carrot
 Lomentum: indehiscent legume, Mimosa, Acacia
 Cremocarp: Coriander (Cilantro or Chinese parsley)
 Regma: Castor, Geranium
 Carcerulus: Salvia
 Double/ Compound Samara: Elm, Maple

B. Fleshy fruits/ succulent: part or all of the pericarp (fruit wall) is fleshy at
maturity; with distinct layers including pericarp, epicarp, mesocarp (fleshy
or fibrous) and endocarp.
 Drupe: coconut, walnut
 Berry: simple fruit created from a single ovary. The ovary may be
compound, with several carpels
 True berries or baccae: thin outer skin, not self-supporting when
removed from the berry; e.g. tomato, coffee, grape, guava
 Modified berries
 Pepo: berries where the skin is hardened, e.g. Cucurbits such
as squash, Papaya, Banana
 Hesperidium: berries with a rind and a juicy interior, e.g.
citrus
 Pome: an accessory fruit composed of one or more carpels surrounded
by accessory tissue; e.g. apple, pear
 Note: Accessory Fruit, False Fruit, Spurious Fruit, Pseudofruit or
Pseudocarp: a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the
ovary but from some adjacent tissue exterior to the carpel; some or all of
the edible part of accessory fruit is not generated by the ovary.
 Balausta: Pomeganate
 Amphisarca: dry, more rigid and self-supporting skin, e.g. Baobab tree

2. Aggregate fruit or etaerio: develops from a single flower with numerous

simple pistils; from single flowers that have multiple carpels which are not
joined together; each pistil contains one carpel, e.g. Raspberry, Strawberry
(also accessory fruit), Rose, Blackberry, Soursop (Guyabano)
3. Multiple/ Composite fruit: one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an
inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single
mass
 Syconus: hypanthodium type of inflorescence, e.g. fig
 Sorosis: catkin, spike or spadix type of inflorescence, e.g. Pineapple,
Jackfruit, Mulberry

 Root - underground portion of the plant.

• Functions of the root system

 Anchorage and support in the soil
 Absorption of plant nutrients and water
 Plant propagules for some crops
 Nitrogen fixation (legumes)
 Storage of water and carbohydrates
 Soil conservation (soil erosion control)
Types of root systems

 Fibrous root - numerous, similar sizes, no central primary root, makes shallow
penetration in the soil. e.g. monocot plants
 Tap root -one central primary root with several branches, makes deep
penetration in the soil. e.g. dicot plants

Other Root Classification

 Adventitious roots - arise from the stem

 Storage, Aquatic, Brace, and Aerial

Modified and Specialized Roots

 Buttress roots
 Large roots on all sides of a big bottomed tree or shallow-rooted tree.
 Typically, are found in nutrient-poor rainforest soils and do not penetrate
to deeper layers.
 Prevent the tree from falling over (hence the name buttress) while also
gathering more nutrients.
 Tuberous roots
 enlarged tap roots for storage, e.g. carrot
 originated from Afghanistan), historically white or purple, orange
pigment is Beta carotene (used by the body to make Vitamin A)
 Modern carrot has 75% beta-carotene than historical carrot (>20
genes affect pigmentation in carrot)
 e.g. radish (has sulphur-based chemicals)
e.g. Pachyrrizus erosus or sinkamas (23 kilos weight of sinkamas
dug in Ilocos March 2010)
e.g. Ipomoea batatas or sweet potato (Native to South America,
domesticated at least 5000 years ago)
e.g. Dioscorea esculenta or lesser yam or tugi (With purple
pigments or anthocyanin)
 Prop or stilt roots
 adventitious roots on trunks or branches
 The adventitious prop roots help to support and securely anchor this shrub
in the mud and loose sand of tidal waters, also provides aeration
 Lenticels - provide gas exchange and an additional source of oxygen for
the submersed roots are highly hydrophobic and prevent water penetration
into the aerenchyma system during the high tide
 Pneumatophores (air-bearing/ breathing roots) or pneumatorrhiza -
located above water level or exposed at low tide).
 Aerenchyma tissues - aerial root projection allowing gas exchange
(aerenchyma tissues), e.g. rice.
 Root nodules
 enlargements in roots which harbor nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as
Rhizobium, found in legumes, e.g. Pea plant
 Root nodules develop as a result of a symbiotic relationship between
rhizobial bacteria and the root hairs.
 The bacteria recognize the root hairs and begin to divide, entering the root
through an infection thread that allows bacteria to enter root cells, which
divide to form the nodule.
 Mycorrhiza
 fungi and root symbiosis or mutual relationship; Plant provides the fungus
with carbohydrates, (e.g. glucose and sucrose) by translocation. Fungal
mycelia provide higher water and mineral absorptive capacity (large
surface area, mycelium: root ratio).

Self- Check: 20 points

Laboratory number 2: by Group

1. Collect an organ specimen from a matured plant, the shoot (stem, leaves,
flowers and fruits) and root and discuss the functions of each organ via video
clip presentation.
 References

Carpena, A.L., R.R.C. Espino, T.L. Rosario, R.P. Laude. 1993. Genetics at the Population Level.
Seameo Searca. Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Poehlman, J.M. and D.A. Sleper. 1996. Breeding Field Crops. Iowa State University
Press, USA.
 Module 6

Plant Growth and Development

Overview

Increase in the size of living organisms is commonly called ‘growth’. Many physiological
processes play an important role during growth of plants and animals. In plants seed germinates and
develops into a seedling and later it assumes the shape of an adult plant. Plants show indefinite and
diffuse growth while animals show fixed and uniform growth.

In this module, we are going to discuss the concepts of plant growth and development.

Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students must:

 Discuss the concepts of plant growth;
 Explain the process of development and
 Reflect the concept of growth and development to your human body.

Content Focus

What is GROWTH?

Growth may be defined as an irreversible permanent increase in size, volume or mass of a

cell or organ or whole organism accompanied by an increase in dry weight.

Plant Growth could be defined as the increasing of plant volume and/or mass with or without
formation of new structures such as organs, tissues, cells or cell organelles. Growth is usually
associated with development (cell and tissue specialization) and reproduction (production of new
individuals).

Example of Growth
 elongation of the roots and stems,
 leaf enlargement and
 increased in the size of flowers and fruits

Measurement of Growth
 increased in length, width, or area,
 increase in volume or mass,
 Weight (either fresh or dry weight).
 Types of Growth

 Primary Growth-. The mitotic division of meristematic cells presents at the root and
shoot apex increases the length of the plant body.
 Secondary Growth - The secondary meristem increases the diameter of the plant body.
 Unlimited Growth- The root and the shoot system of plants grow continuously from
germination stage to the death or throughout the life span of the plant. It is called
‘Unlimited’ or ‘indeterminate’ type of growth.
 Limited Growth - The leaves, fruits and flowers stop growing after attaining certain
size. This is called ‘limited’ or ‘determinate’ type of growth.

Stages of Growth

Seed Germination to a Complete Plant

 Vegetative Growth- The earlier growth of plant producing leaves, stem and branches
without flowers is called ‘vegetative growth’/ Phase.
 Reproductive Growth- After the vegetative growth, plants produce flowers which is
the reproductive part of the plant. This is called reproductive growth/phase.

Differentiation, Dedifferentiation and Redifferentiation of Cells

The three phases of cell growth are cell division, cell enlargement and cell
differentiation. The first two stages increase the size of the plant cell while the 3rd stage brings
maturity to the cells.

1. Cell Division
Cell division and growth in plants are active in the following plant parts:
 The root tips,
 The stem tips,
 The cambium in dicotyledons, and
 The intercalary meristem in monocotyledons.

In a multicellular plant, cells undergo many changes as they develop from a newly
formed cell in a meristem to a functional mature cell. This differentiation during or after
enlargement forms cells highly specialized in size, shape, and function.
Some cells complete all structural changes in a few days; others take much longer. Some
live for years; others die in a few hours depending on the plant.

2. Cell Enlargement
After mitotic division, the combined volume of the two new cells is about equal to the
volume of the parent cell.
The bulk of the increase comes in the vacuoles, which are small and numerous in young
cells, but larger and fewer in older ones.
Many cells increase as much as 500 times in volume as they age, with most of the increase
being due to water intake in the vacuoles.
Non-lignified plant tissues are supported by the pressure of cell contents against the
(primary) cell walls of their tissues. This turgor pressure is caused by the uptake of water by the
cytoplasm of the cells so that pressure is exerted at the plasma membrane on the cell wall.

3. Cellular Differentiation
Differentiation is controlled by genotype, environment and its interaction. Once the
cell reached its final volume it becomes specialized
 Location of growth (meristem - apical, lateral, intercalary, cambium)

Differentiation - is a process during which cells undergoes structural changes in the cell wall
and protoplasm.

Dedifferentiation - is undividable differentiated cell sometimes regains the power of division.

It is common process in plants during secondary growth and in wound healing mechanisms. A
dedifferentiated cell can divide and produce new cells. Thus, produced new cells again loose the
power of division and become a part of permanent tissue. This process is called
“redifferentiation’. Tumour cells form good example for redifferentiated cells.

Development or morphogenesis is the series of changes by which an individual plant or animal

passes from a lower to a higher state of being or from embryonic condition to maturity. It is a
change in the complexity of the organism.
 For example, a dividing cell resulting to many cells is development and a dividing
tissue giving rise to other tissues is also development. A change from a less complex to a
more complex being is the essence of development.

Development is defined as sum total of growth and differentiation. Development is governed

by both environmental and internal factors. One of the internal factors that regulate growth and
development is ‘plant hormones’.
Development is the sum of growth and differentiation.
Development is most visibly manifested as changes in the form of an organ or organism

Plant Hormones/ Phytohormones/ Growth Regulators- Plant hormones are chemically

diverse substances produced in minute quantity and they involve in most of the plant cell
activities. They regulate the growth process both by promoting and inhibiting growth. They are
produced in certain parts of the plant and transported to other tissues where their action is
shown. Based on their promotory and inhibitory activity they have been classified into growth
promoters and growth inhibitors.

Photoperiodism

It has been discovered that duration of light also plays a major role in inducing flowering in
plants. This flowering response in plants to the relative length of light and dark periods within a
24 hour cycle is called ‘Photoperiodism’. Every plant has a specific critical period of light
duration needed for flowering. In order to flower they must be exposed to either more or less
light hour than that of critical period. Based on flowering response to light duration, plants have
been classified into Long day plants, short day plants and day neutral plants.

Long Day Plants (LDP) - They are plants which produce flower only when they are exposed to
light duration more than the critical period. They produce flower in summer. E.g.-Oat and Rye
plants.

Short Day Plants (SDP) - They are plants which produce flower only when they are exposed to
light duration shorter than the critical period. They produce flower in spring or winter. E.g. -
Chrysanthemum, Tobacco and Coffee.
 Day Neutral Plants- They produces flowers throughout the year irrespective of length of light
hours to which they are exposed. E.g.- Tomato

Vernalization

Some biennials like carrot, cabbage and sugar beet need a cold/low temperature
treatment before they flower. This is called ‘vernalisaion’. In other words, Vernalisation is
promotion of flowering by low temperature treatment. Spraying gibberellins is a substitute to
cold treatment and biennials can be made to flower in one year without the cold treatment.
 
Senescence and programmed cell death
Is the final stage in the development of cells, tissues, and organs.

Patterns of senescence are: increased respiration, declined photosynthesis, and orderly

disassembly of macromolecules.

Self- Reflect: 20 points

1. Make a 1 page (A4 size) reflection in relation to the topic (growth and development).

References

Carpena, A.L., R.R.C. Espino, T.L. Rosario, R.P. Laude. 1993. Genetics at the Population Level.
Seameo Searca. Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.

Fehr, W.R. 1987. Principles of Cultivar Development Vol. 1. Theory and Technique. Macmillian
Publishing Co. Ny.

Rimando, Tito J. Fundamentals of Crop Science. Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture,

U.P Los Baños, Laguna. 2004.