Perpetuation

of Life
 One characteristic of living organisms is how a
few single cells can multiply, diversify and
organize to form a system of higher organisms.

 It ensures continued existence of a species.

 Plant and animals today exist only because

organisms of past generations reproduce them.

 The process involved is guided by sequence of

information and transfer.

 For the sake of all living things, a plant`s

reproduction should not stop.
 Plants provide one of people`s basic needs food.

 On the other hand, plants need animals for carbon

dioxide, a product of animal and human cellular
respiration.

 Living organisms have a variety of reproductive

patterns exhibited by plants and animals.

 In this unit we will explore how cells of different

organisms multiply and diversify.

 As you go over this unit, we will also find out more

about recent advances in reproductive technology
and how humans use genetic methods to improve
life.
Lesson 1. Plant
Reproduction
and Its
Structures
 Why is reproduction important?

 Reproduction is important for the perpetuation

of species.

 If there were no means of reproduction,

individuals of a species would not exist anymore
and their species would die.

 In reproduction, new generations are produced

and the species lives on.

 How do you think plants reproduce?

 They do it through Asexual and Sexual
reproduction.

 Both type of reproduction can reproduce

possibly because of cell division.

 The main difference between the two is in terms

of parents.

 For example, a new individual form from a part

of a parent individual.

 So, only one parent is involved.

A new individual is genetically identical
from the parent this time it is called
asexual reproduction.

 Meanwhile, Flowering plants are the

dominant plant form on land and they
reproduce by sexual and asexual method.

 According to Valdez, Annabelle (2014)

the sexual reproduction in flowering
plants involves the production of male
and female sex cells.
 When the male and female gametes are
transfer to ovules the process is called
pollination.

 After pollination, fertilization takes

place and the ovules grow into seeds
within and inside a fruit.

 On the other hand, plant reproduction

can also be accomplished through
sexual and asexual reproduction which
is then called Alternation of generation.
Asexual Reproduction
 Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are
genetically identical to the parent plant.

 It can reproduce asexually, even without the

fertilizing the sex cells, by either vegetative
reproduction as defined by Hans Winkler.,

 He further says that as replacement of the normal

sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction
without fertilization, many plants are able to
propagate themselves using asexual reproduction.
 Thismethod does not require the
investment requirement to produce a
flower, attract pollinators, or find a
means of seed dispersal.

 Asexual reproduction produces plants

that are genetically identical to the
parent plant because no mixing of
male and female sex cells takes place.
 Naturally, these plants survive well under
stable environmental conditions when
compared with plants produced from
sexual reproduction because they carry
genes identical to those of their parents.

 Advantages of asexual reproduction

include the increased rate of maturity and
a sturdier (strong) adult plant roots and
stems of the plants such as corms, stem
tubers, rhizomes, and stolon which
undergo asexual reproduction or
vegetative reproduction.
Types:
Stem Tuber
 Potato is the underground manifestation of stem.

 Potato reproduces asexually by the process known

as vegetative propagation.

 Potato have small eyes which gives rise to scaly

leaves.

 During rainy season these eyes start to produce

scaly leaves due to availability of required amount of
moisture.

 Scaly leaves will then develop into new plants.

Corm
 Corm is vertical, fleshy, underground
stem that acts as a food-storage
structure in certain seed.

 Corms can store starches to fuel growth

and to help plants survive unfavorable
conditions, and many produce
offshoots known as daughter corms or
cormels that are used for vegetative
reproduction.
Rhizomes
 The rhizomes grow out from
its original plant and invade
the nearby soil.

 They then make new flowering

stalks.
Stolon
 Stolonor runner a stem that runs
along the ground, at the nodes, it
forms adventitious roots that
grow into a new plant such as
Bermuda grass.
Bulb
 Areround, modified underground
buds covered with bulb scales that
are modified leaves.

 Frequently, bulblets, or small

axillary bulbs, initially attach to the
parent bulb, developing into
separate plants when the parent
bulb dies.
 Sucker
 Are similar to stolons but

develop from roots instead of

stems, and are found
underground.
Leaf Margin
 Some plants develop plantlets in
the notches of their leaf margins,
such as Kalanchoe.

 When these plantlets are detached

from the leaf, they develop into
individual plants.
Sexual Reproduction
 Now this time, what is sexual reproduction in plants?

 It produces offspring by the fusion of gametes,

which result in offspring that are genetically
different from the parent or parents.

 Sexual reproduction involves two fundamental

processes: mitosis and meiosis, which rearranges
the genes and reduces the number of chromosomes,
and the fertilization, which restores the chromosome
to a complete diploid number.
 In between these two processes, different types
of plants like an alga vary, but many of them,
including all land plants, undergo alternation of
generations, with two different multicellular
structures, a gametophyte and a sporophyte.

 Look at the illustration below, two sex sells

unite to form a complete cell called which is
called a zygote.

 The zygote then divides many times by mitosis

and forms and embryo. Through a complicated
process of growth, it develops into an adult.
The adult then produces sex cells anew, thus,
the life cycle continues. See the diagram below.
 However, sex cells (sperm and egg)
which are reproduced in different
organs can be found in the same plant
or in different individual plant.

 Take for instance the gumamela plant.

 Picture below shows how reproduction

takes place in plant.

 The transfer of pollen from anther to

the stigma is called Pollination.
 The picture shows that when pollen
which consist of the anther and
filament from the male organs
(stamen) reaches the female organ
which consist of the stigma, ovule and
pistil) fertilization then starts.

 When pods mature, they dry and crack

to open and then release seeds, which
fall to the ground and germinate to
make more plant
Do you think it is possible
for a flower to pollinate
itself?

Canthe two types

Asexual and sexual
reproduction happen in
some flowering plants?
 The answer is yes, it is possible for a pollen of
one flower to pollinate another flower.

 Therefore, it is called cross pollination and is

made possible with the help of wind, insects
and birds.

 Among plants, there are many methods of

reproduction and development such as Ferns
(Pako-pako) and mosses (Lumot) sexual and
asexual reproduction can occur but it is known
as Alternation of Generation as shown in the
picture below.
 Lesson 2.
How
Animals
Reproduce?
Learning Concept
 There are some animals produce
offspring through asexual
reproduction while other animals
produce offspring through sexual
reproduction.

 Thetwo methods of reproduction

have advantages and disadvantages.
 Asexual reproduction certainly produces
offspring that are genetically identical to
the parent because the offspring are all
clones and resembles of the original
parent.

A single individual can produce

offspring asexually and large numbers
of offspring can be produced rapidly;
definitely these are two advantages that
asexually reproducing organisms have
over sexually reproducing organisms.
 Ina stable or normal
environment, asexual
reproduction is an effective
means of reproduction because
all the offspring will be adapted
to that environment.
 Inan unstable or not normal
environment, species that reproduce
asexually may be at a disadvantage
because all the offspring are genetically
identical and may not be adapted to
different conditions.

 Insexual reproduction, the genetic

material of two individuals is combined
to produce genetically diverse offspring
that can be different from their parents.
 However, the genetic diversity of
sexually produced offspring is thought
to provide sexually reproducing
individual’s greater fitness because
many of their offspring can survive and
reproduce in an unpredictable or
unstable environment.

 The species that reproduce sexually

and have separate sex cells must
maintain two different types of
individuals, males and females.
 Asa result, only half of the
population (females) can
produce the offspring,
therefore fewer offspring will
be produced compared to
asexual reproduction.

 Thissitting is a disadvantage of
sexual reproduction compared
to asexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
 Asexualreproduction can occur in
prokaryotic microorganisms (bacteria
and archaea) and in many eukaryotic,
single-celled and multi-celled
organisms.

 Thereare several ways that animals

reproduce asexually among these are:
Several ways that animals
reproduce asexually:
1. Fission
2. Budding
3. Fragmentation
4. Parthenogenesis
1. Fission
 Binaryfission can occur in some
invertebrate, multi-celled organisms.

 The term fission is applied for

instances in which an organism
appears to split itself into two parts
and, if possible, regenerate the missing
parts of each new organism.
 For example, species of turbellarian
flatworms which is commonly called the
planarians they are able to separate their
bodies into head and tail regions and then
regenerate the missing half in each of the
two new organisms.

 Sea anemones (Cnidaria) on the other hand,

such as species of the genus Anthopleura
will divide along the oral-aboral axis, while
sea cucumbers (Echinodermata) of the genus
Holothuria, will divide into two halves across
the oral-aboral axis and regenerate the
other half in each of the resulting
  turbellarian
flatworms

 sea anemone
2. Budding
 Budding is a form of asexual reproduction
which results from the outgrowth of a part of
the body leading to a separation of the “bud”
from the original organism and will lead to the
formation of two individual, one is smaller than
the other.

 Budding occurs commonly in some invertebrate

animals among these are hydras and corals.

 In the case of hydras, a bud forms that develops

into an adult and breaks away from the main
body.
 Picture of hydra is truly fascinating in small
aquatic animals.

 Most hydra shows the outgrowth part leading to

it are tiny, reaching a maximum of only about
30 mm long when it can separate into bud fully
extended.

 They are barely visible to the naked eye and

even in hand lens needed to be able to see them
properly.

 When the body is extended the tentacles will

wave in the water
3. Fragmentation
 Fragmentation is a type of reproduction which
breaks an individual into parts followed by
regeneration.

 When the animal is capable of fragmentation,

and when parts are big enough, a separate
individual will regrow from each part.

 Fragmentation can occur through accidental

damage, from predators, or in natural form of
reproduction.
 Reproduction through
fragmentation can be detected in
sponges, planarians, earthworms
and sea stars.

 Thisprocess could form a new

individual which can be
regenerated from a broken arm
and a piece of the central disc.
4. Parthenogenesis
 Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual
reproduction in which an egg develops into an
individual without being fertilized by an
organism.

 The result of the offspring can either be haploid

or diploid, depending on the process in the
species.

 Parthenogenesis can occur in invertebrates such

as water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, and
ants, wasps, and bees
 Ants and bees use parthenogenesis to
produce haploid males (drones).

 The diploid females are the result of a

fertilized egg in some vertebrate animals
such as certain reptiles, amphibians, and
fish can also reproduce through
parthenogenesis.

 The term is derived from the Greek words

for “virgin birth,” and several insect species
including aphids, bees, and ants are known
to reproduce by parthenogenesis.
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
 In sexual reproduction, the two parents
donate genes to their young resulting to
offspring with a mix of inherited genes from
the parent.

 These genes can be donated and mix through

a process called fertilization.

 During sexual reproduction among animals, a

haploid sperm will then unite with a haploid
egg cell in order to form a diploid zygote.
 Thezygote then divides mitotically into
an embryo.

 Theembryo grows and matures

eventually.

 After
birth or hatching time, the animal
develops into a mature adult that is
capable for reproduction.

 There are two methods by which

fertilization can take place.
There are two methods by which fertilization can take
place.

 1. external fertilization (the eggs

are fertilized outside of the body),

 2. internal fertilization (the eggs

are fertilized within the female
reproductive tract)
External Fertilization
 is a process of fusion of male and female sex
cells (sperm and egg) occurs mostly in wet
environments and requires both the male and
female to release and eliminate their gametes
into their surroundings (usually water).

 This process is also called spawning.

 The advantage of external fertilization
is that it could results to the production
of a large number of offspring.

 One disadvantage is that environmental

hazards, such as predators, an animal
that greatly reduce the chance of
surviving into adulthood.

 Amphibians,fish, and coral are

examples of organisms that reproduce
this way.
 Animals that reproduce by spawning reproduction
do not typically care for their young after
spawning.

 In other spawning animals, it provides varying

degrees of protection and care for their eggs after
fertilization.

 Some will hide their eggs in the sand like turtles

while others carry them around in pouches like
kangaroo.

 This extra care and protection increase the

animal's chances of survival.
External fertilization that occurs
outside of Female Parent
 Internal fertilization
 is the union of an egg cell with a sperm during sexual
reproduction inside the body of a parent gametes.

 For this to happen, there is need for this method for the male
to introduce the sperm into the female's reproductive tract.

 Only male gametes are discharged in the female genital’s

tract.

 Meanwhile in Internal fertilization is also followed by almost

all plants like bryophytes, pteridophytes except for a few
aquatic non-vascular plants. It can also occur in terrestrial
(animals living on land). This method follows three ways
which are oviparity, viviparity, ovoviviparity.
Oviparity
 is when animals lay eggs
outside, and the
nourishment is given to the
offspring by the presence
of the yolk in the egg.

 These animals are called

oviparous, like birds, most
amphibians, reptiles, bony
fish, and some
cartilaginous fishes.
Viviparity
 is for mammals, few reptiles and
cartilaginous fish.

 In this, the offspring is developed

within the body of a female and
receive nourishment through the
placenta coming from the mother’s
blood.

 Eventually, the developed offspring

comes out from the mother`s body.

 These animals are called as

viviparous
Ovoviviparity
 is when the eggs are retained
in the female body, and the
nourishment is provided from
the yolk present in the egg only
to the developing embryo.

 The egg hatched when the

young ones are fully developed.

 Sharks, lizards, snakes follow

this process.