GROUP 3

PLANTS AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Plants can propagate via sexual or asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction
in plants is referred to as vegetative propagation and is facilitated by mitotic
division of existing cells from plant organs. Sexual reproduction takes place in
specialized parts of the plant where the haploid gamete unite in fertilization.
Reproduction, whether by sexual or asexual mechanisms, is followed by the
changes in shape as the plants reach various points in life cycle.

HOW DO PLANTS REPRODUCE

ASEXUALLY?
Many plants are capable of being propagated vegetatively from parts of a parent
plant. The new plants produced have the same genetic compostition as the parent
by the mitosis. Strawberry plants and some grasses have a running stem grow along
the soil surface. Roots grow out of the running stem at regular intervals and may be
taken from the parent to grow a new plant and expand its range. Plant organs that
function for storage may also be used to grow new plants such as potatoes, onions,
and ginger.
HOW DO PLANTS REPRODUCE
SEXUALLY?
The life cycle of all plants show a pattern called alternation of generations. The
haploid stage is called gametophyte generation, while the diploid stage is called
the sporophyte generation.
GAMETOPHYTE SPOROPHYTE
HOW ARE PLANT GAMETES
PRODUCED?
In flowering plants, the gametophytes exhibits heterospory that is, they produce
two types of spores of unequal sizes . Microspores are the small pores that
develop into male haploid gametophytes also known as a pollen grain.

The pollen grain contains the male gamete sperm cell. Likewise, megaspores are
the large pores that develop into female haploid gametophyte otherwise known
as the embryo sac. The egg cell is housed in the embryo sac.
WHAT IS THE SITE OF SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
IN PLANTS?
In flowering plants, the sporophyte generation ears its
unique organ (the flower). The flower is the site of sexual
reproduction. It has a short stem called a peduncle
surrounded by floral leaves that comprise the floral organs.
The outermost whorl is comprised of the sepals (green
leathery structures that are leaf-like in appearance).
The sepals brace the, petals the colorful and often
scented structures that enhance the appearance of the
flower.
A stamen is the male reproductive organ characterized
by a slender filament and an anther at its tip.
The female counterpart of the stamen is the pistil
which may consist of one or more carpels.
The carpel is composed of a stigma, style, and ovary at
the bottom end.
The ovary houses and protects the ovule, the
formation site of megaspores. The megaspore in the
ovule produces the embryo sac which contains the egg
cell.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMALE
GAMETOPHYTE
The female haploid gametophyte is produced in the ovule housed within the ovary of the
pistil. It starts with a diploid megaspore mother cell undergoing meiosis to produce four
haploid megaspores. Three of the megaspores degenerate and die, but one becomes the
megagametophyte.

The megagametophyte undergoes three rounds of mitosis, leading to eight seven cells and
eight haploid nuclei that make up the female gametophyte, the embryo sac.

One of the nuclei, the oocyte nucleus, serves as the egg in sexual reproduction, while two
other nuclei function for the formation of the pollen tube in fertilization and the endosperm
for the seed. The other nuclei eventually disintegrate.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MALE
GAMETOPHYTE
The male gametophyte develops in the anther at the tip of the filament if the stamen. The
diploid microspore mother cell produces four haploid microspores, each enclosed in a pollen
sac. The microspore in the pollen sac is called a pollen grain.

The pollen grain then divides mitotically to form a two-celled microgametophyte. The nuclei
in the pollen grain are the tube nucleus, which will contribute to the formation of the pollen
tube, and the generative nucleus, which will undergo mitosis to form two sperm cells.

Upon maturity of the pollen grain, the anther wall splits open and releases it to the
surrounding environment.
POLLINATION
Once the pollen grain is outside the anther, it must be transported into the stigma where it
can proceed fertilization. This transfer of the pollen grain from the anther to the stigma is
termed pollination and the agents responsible are the pollinating agents or pollinators.

Pollination may be facilitated by wind or animals. A high rate of pollination helps guarantee
plant reproduction as the pistil can receive enough pollen to fertilize the egg in the ovule.

Anemophily- Pollination by wind is common in grasses and gymnosperms with

inconspicuous flowers and massive numbers of pollen grains that are fine, light, and non-
sticky.

Zoophily- Pollination by vertebrate animals is similar to entomophily in that it exploits the

need of animals to obtain nectar in exchange for pollination.
ENTOMOPHILY
Pollination by insects is employed
by plants with appealing flowers
that usually produce nectar to
attract the pollinators. Insects
attempting to get nectar at the base
of the flower brush up against the
anther where the pollen sticks to
their body. The pollen is then
transferred to other flowers as the
insects continue to gather nectar.
FERTILIZATION
Once the pollen grain lands on the stigma of the pistil, the tube nucleus facilitates the
growth of the pollen tube to reach the ovary. The generative nuclei gives rise to two sperm
nuclei which move through the pollen tube, going right through the opening of the ovule.

As the sperm reaches the embryo sac in the ovule, one sperm cell unites with the egg cell to
form the zygote. This restores the diploid state and thus signals the start of the sporophyte
generation. The other sperm cell fuses with the central cell of the embryo sac, which
contains two nuclei, to form a triploid(3n)nucleus. Thus, two fertilization events effectively
take place at once, hence the term double fertilization.
REPRODUCTION IN
ANIMALS
REPRODUCTION IN
ANIMALS
Animals reproduce either sexually, asexually or both. Individual plants arising from asexual
reproduction are genetic clones of the parent, whereas in sexual reproduction, two parents
contribute their genetic material to create a genetically distinct offspring.

The primary difference between the two modes of reproduction is that sexual reproduction
involves the formation of haploid gametes (sex cells), whereas asexual reproduction is limited
to cell division in diploid cells.

Some species are entirely reliant on sexual reproduction, while some can switch to asexual
reproduction and back again as needed.
HOW DO ANIMALS REPRODUCE ASEXUALLY?

BINARY FISSION
It is the most common form of reproduction
In unicellular organisms. It is simply the
Separation of the body into two new individuals
As it goes through the cell cycle and ends in
Mitosis.
BUDDING
It refers to the development of a new individual
through outgrowths or buds from the parent
the buds can eventually break off from the parent
to grow into an independent adult, or can stay
attached to the parent and continuously bud off
to form a colony.
GEMMULATION
Commonly employed by sponges, gemmulation
Is the formation of a new individual from a mass
Of cells enclosed in a capsule called gemmule.
FRAGMENTATION
Fragmentation is observed in many animals such
as annelid worms, flatworms, sponges, corals and
echinoderms. In this type of reproduction, the
parent is split into fragments and each fragment is
capable of becoming a new individual.
Invertebrates that fragment merely regenerate to
replace the missing parts of the body.
HOW DO ANIMALS REPRODUCE
ASEXUALLY?

BISEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In this type, the two parents are characteristically
distinct in sex that is, they are characteristically
male and female, producing the gametes sperm
and egg, respectively.
HERMAPRODITHISM
Involves animals that have both male and female
reproductive organs within the same individual.
These individuals are called hermaphrodites
or monoecious.

PARTHENOGENESIS
Parthenogenesis differs from the previous
types in that it is the type of reproduction
that occurs without fertilization.
HOW ARE ANIMAL GAMETES PRODUCED?
During embryonic development, the germ cells migrates to their final location,
either testis or ovary.

ORGANOGENESIS
The cells begin to interact to generate the form and structure of the body. A series of events
Called morphogenesis. Cells undergo mitotic division to proliferate, interact with their
Neighboring cells and the extracurricular matrix with varying intensifies, relocate positions
In the embryo.
GROWTH
Means an increase in size therefore,
This stage is dominated by cell
Proliferative movement to increase
The number of differentiated cells
And effectively the embryo’s size.
Apoptosis is also plays an important
Role such as in development of the
Fingers and toes . Growth continues
On after birth until the animal
Species reaches its adult body form.
 WHAT ARE THE SEXUAL STAGES OF
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS?
SPERMATOGENESIS
Germ cells undergo repeated rounds
of mitosis to increase the numbers of
Gametes that may be used for sexual
reproduction.
OOGENESIS
Oogenesis begins with the diploid ooginium. Unlike males, mitotic divisions of
the oogonium take place only during embryonic development. Hence, the number of
oogonium that a female possesses throughout its lifetime is already set in her ovaries
even before birth.
 ORGANOGENESIS
Growth of the plant is achieved by increasing the
number of cells through mitosis and enlarging
existing cells. The formation of organogenesis is
The integrated action of growth and development.
It is regulated by genetic and environmental cues
such as the maturity of the plant and the heat and
light conditions.
THANK YOU!