ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY

ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY: REPRODUCTION

Reproduction:
 giving rise to organisms similar to themselves
 Indispensable for the survival as well as the evolution of the
species.
 Two types:

Asexual and sexual reproduction

There are two modes of Reproduction;
ASEXUAL SEXUAL
 One parent with no special is a way of reproduction of
reproductive organs and no some animals and plants.
sex involved.
The main process is mitosis. Some protists and fungi also
common among some single-cell reproduce this way.
organisms
Simple and rapid  union of the sperm and egg
cells via fertilization to form a
Genetic copies of the original
zygote
example;
amoeba
 two parent organism with
many plants also reproduce special reproductive structures
asexually.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
 common only to simple forms of animals such as
protozoans, sponges, coelenterates, and few others.

In animals, there are a few modes that asexual

reproduction takes:
a. Fission
b. Budding
c. Fragmentation
d. Spore formation
 MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A. Binary Fission
 a parent organism divides into 2 equal cells.
among unicellular organisms such as bacteria, protozoans and such.

Involves 2 distinct phases:

i. duplication of genetic material. In cells with a nucleus, the nucleus divides by mitosis.
ii. division of the cytoplasm into 2 equal parts.
A. Binary Fission
B. Budding
 parent organism divides into 2 unequal parts.
 New organisms develop as small outgrowths or buds on the parent
organism.
 buds may break off and live independently or remain attached
forming a colony.
 occurs in yeast, hydra, sponges and some worms.
Gemmulation
 internal buds found in sponges that are the result of asexual
reproduction in response to hostile environment (i.e. dessication,
freezing, and anoxia).
 Made of amoebocytes surrounded by a layer of spicules and can
survive conditions that can kill the adult body.
C. Fragmentation (cloning)
 New organisms grow from a separated fragment of the parent
organism
D. Regeneration
 the ability of an organism to re-grow lost body parts.
 simple animals when cut into 2 or more parts have the ability to
regenerate each part into a complete organism
 powers of regeneration decrease as animals become more
complex.
 Lobsters and crabs can re-grow a lost claw but cannot generate a
whole animal from a small piece.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
Involves the fusion of gametes to form a zygote via
fertilization.
 FORMS OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A. Conjugation
 the simplest and is commonly found in Paramecium
 Two individuals come together and exchange a portion of their
nuclear material
B. Hermaphroditism
 One individual has both male and female gonads
 It is monotonous (“mono” – one; “oiks” – house)
 do not practice self-fertilization rather they have cross-
fertilization.
C. Parthenogenesis
 modified sexual reproduction which an unfertilized egg develops
into complete individual
 the fertilized eggs (diploid) become females (Future queens and
workers) unfertilized ones (haploid) becomes the drones
D. Biparental Reproduction
 Common reproduction found among many invertebrates and all
vertebrates
 it involves separate distinct male and female individuals with
gonads producing either the male or female gametes but not both
(dioecious).
 ANATOMY OF HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
The general structure:
 Gonad: gamete formation and production of
hormones
 Ducts: gamete transport
 Special organs: to transfer and receive gametes
 Accessory glands: provide secretions for
reproductive process
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
 EXOCRINE GLANDS OPENS INTO THE
REPRODUCTIVE CHANNELS:
Seminal Vesicle: which opens into each vas
deferense before it meets the urethra
Prostate gland: a single fused gland
Cowper’s gland: found near the base of the
penis of which secrete into the urethra

functions: lubricates the passage ways, food for

the sperm, counteracts the acidity of urine
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The general structure:
 Ovaries
 Oviducts (fallopian tubes)
 Uterus
 Vagina
 Accessory glands

Within the week of fertilization, the fertilized egg travels

to the uterus, a highly muscular organ, where it is
implanted. A new organ, the placenta is formed from
fetal and maternal tissues.
FERTILIZATION
LIFE CYLE OF COMMON FRUIT FLY,
DROSOPHILIA
 PLANT REPRODUCTION

Is a seed alive? Is a fruit alive? Answer

as completely as you can on your own
paper. (Hang on to your paper until the
end of class.)
Bisexual flowers: Lily, Rose, Sunflower, Tulip, Daffodil, Mustard, Brinjal, Hibiscus,
Tomato, Long bean, Chille, Country bean, mango.

Unisexual flowers: Coconut flowers, Papaya, Watermelon, Cucumber, Maize, White

mulberry, Musk melon,Castor bean, Marrow, Luffa, Snake gourd, Bitter gourd,
Tapioca, Pumpkin, American holly, Birch, Pine, Gopher purge, Tungoil bean. 
Agents of Pollination
Pollination occurs through some external agents like,
1) Wind
The pollen grains which are very light in weight can be passed on by wind from one flower to another or to
the stigma of the same flower. This is known as wind pollination. Examples of wind pollination are
pollination in wheat, rice, maize etc. Wind-pollinated flowers have the following characteristics:

Wind-pollinated flowers are mostly small and not showy.

They produce lightweight pollens in large number and do not produce nectar.
The stigma is sticky.
2) Insects
When an insect sits on the flowers to collect the nectar, the pollen grains stick on their legs and wings. When
they travel to another flower, they carry the pollens with them. In this way, they carry out pollination.
Examples are a sweet pea, orchids, sunflower, buttercup. Characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers:
These flowers have bright colours, are large and showy.
They have nectaries, sticky stigma and sticky pollen grains.
Some birds like Sunbird and hummingbirds and mammals like Squirrel also help in pollination.
3) Water
Aquatic plants carry out water pollination. In this, the pollen grains are released in water passively and are
carried out by water currents to the other flowers for pollination. Examples of water-pollination are
seagrass, hydrilla etc.
Uni-sexual and Bisexual Flowers
Flowers can be of two types depending upon whether both the sexual parts – male and
female are present in the same flower or different flower.
Bisexual flowers: Flowers which contain both the stamens and the pistil are known as
bisexual flowers. For example-  Rose, Hibiscus, Gulmohar, Mustard etc.
Uni-sexual flowers: The flowers which contain either the stamens or the pistil are known
as unisexual flowers. For example- Maize,  Papaya, Cucumber etc.
WATER POLLINATION SEA GAR
Fertilization
Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes. It results in the formation of single-celled
zygote.
Germination of Pollen Grain
The pollen grain develops pollen tube through the style and reaches the ovary. It enters the ovule
from a small opening. Pollen tube carries the male gamete. Male gamete fuses with the
female gamete to form the zygote.
Post-fertilization Change
Following changes take place in the flower after fertilization. The fertilized zygote grows into an
embryo. The embryo has two parts – plumule which grows into shoot and radical which
grows into the root.
The ovary grows into fruit.
The other parts of the flower fall off.
The ovule develops into a seed.
Structure of Seed
The seed contains the embryo covered by the seed coat. Cotyledon present in the seed helps in the
nourishment of the developing baby plant on germination of the seed.
Questions For You
Q1: Which of the following statements is/are true for sexual reproduction in plants?
Plants are obtained from seeds
Two plants are always essential
Fertilization can occur only after pollination
Only insects are agents of pollination
Solution: Statements (a) and (c) are true.
Q2. In the diagram given below, label the parts marked (a), (b) and (c).

Solution:
Pollen grain
Pollen tube passing through the stigma
Ovule
 Asexual reproduction is natural
“cloning.” Parts of the plant, such as
leaves or stems, produce roots and
become an independent plant.

 Sexual reproduction requires fusion of

male cells in the pollen grain with
female cells in the ovule.
FLOWER PARTS
 Parts of the flower
Stamen – male part of the flower
 Anther – small sac that produces pollen grains which are immature
 Filament – tube-like structure that supports the anther and where
pollen grains pass throughout the anther.

Pistil – female part of the flower

 Stigma – sticky and feathery surface on which pollen grains land
and grows
 Style (stalk) – slender tube which connects the stigma to the ovary
and where the pollen reach down the ovary.
 Ovary – it holds the ovules and later becomes the fruit.
 Ovules – if fertilized will eventually become the seed
 Accessory Parts of Flower
1. Sepals – makes up the outermost portion of the flower and
sometimes colored and resembled petals.

2. Calyx – all the sepals to form this part, serves as protective

covering for the flower bud, helping to protect it from insect
damage, and prevent it from drying out.

3. Petals – brightly colored and often have perfume or nectar at

their bases; it attract pollinators by forming a tube or shape.

4. Corolla – made up of the flower’s petals and provides a surface

for insect pollinators to rest on while feeding
 Major Groups of Plants

Bryophytes (Non-vascular plants)

 Lack well-developed structures for conducting water
and nutrients

Tracheophytes (Vascular plants)

 Have a complex vascular system
Evolutionary Tree of Major Groups of Plants
 ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

 Plants have a double life cycle with two

distinct forms:
 Sporophyte: diploid, produce haploid spores by
meiosis.
 Gametophyte: haploid, produce gametes by
mitosis.
 The Bryophytes

Non-vascular plants
No true roots, leaves, and stems
Require a moist environment
Anchoring rhizoids absorb water and nutrients
 The Bryophytes: Reproduction
Gametes develop within protected structures on gametophyte

 Archegonia (singular, archegonium) produce eggs

 Antheridia (singular, antheridium) produce sperm

 Archegonia and antheridia may be located on the same plant or on

different plants
 The Vascular Plants
 Have roots, stems, and leaves
 Have vessels impregnated with the stiffening agent lignin
 Include the seedless vascular plants and the seed plants

Division Tracheophytes
• Adapted to life in drier
conditions
• Had to generate body
support
• Vessels to conduct water
and nutrients
Seedless plants: Spike
mosses, horsetails, and ferns
FERN LIFE CYCLE
 Seed Plants: General
Dominance of the sporophyte generation

Reproductive adaptations

Pollen
Wind and pollinators for fertilization
 water not required for fertilization

Seeds
Stores food for embryo
Embryo protection for unfavorable environment
 Seed Plants: Gymnosperm

Non-flowering seed plants

Produce “naked seeds”
Three divisions:
Coniferophyta
Cycadophyta
Ginkophyta
 CONIFERS

Conifers (also non-flowering plants) have

reduced gametophytes.
 Male gametophyte is contained in a dry pollen
grain.
 Female gametophyte is a few cells inside of the
structures that become the seed.
CONIFER
POLLINATION
Conifers are wind-pollinated plants.
Chance allows some pollen to land on the
scales of female cones.
Pollen germinates, grows a pollen tube into
the egg to allow sperm to fertilize the egg.
What are some advantages and
disadvantages to wind pollination?
 Seed Plants: Angiosperm

Flowering seed plants

The dominant plant form on Earth
Major evolutionary adaptations
 Flowers to attract pollinators
 Fruit to protect seeds and developing embryo
 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

1. Vegetative Propagation
a. Budding – method wherein a bud outgrows from the parent
organism and detaches itself later to become a new but the
same organism as the parent.
b. Marcotting – method wherein to develop roots in the stem of
a parent plant for several days after putting soil in it.
c. Grafting – it is made possible when a scion (shoot of one
plant) in inserted into the stem of another plant (same species
or closely related).
d. Plantlets – tiny new plants which develop in the notches
along the leaf margins. When these tiny new plants drop from
a leaf and fall to the ground, it grow but removing and potting
is the fastest way to propagate new maternity.
Types of vegetative reproduction[edit]
Natural means of vegetative propagation
RHIZOMES
Rhizomes are stem-like
structures that grow
horizontally across the
ground and from which new
roots and shoots may arise.
They serve as protein and 
starch storage units serving
as a nutrient source for
newly developed plants.
Examples of plants that use
rhizomes are ginger, lilies
 and irises.
RUNNERS[19][EDIT]
ALSO KNOWN AS STOLONS, RUNNERS ARE
MODIFIED STEMS THAT, UNLIKE RHIZOMES,
GROW FROM EXISTING STEMS JUST BELOW
THE SOIL SURFACE. AS THEY ARE
PROPAGATED, THE BUDS ON THE MODIFIED
STEMS PRODUCE ROOTS AND STEMS. THOSE
BUDS ARE MORE SEPARATED THAN THE ONES
FOUND ON THE RHIZOME.
EXAMPLES OF PLANTS THAT USE RUNNERS
ARE STRAWBERRIES AND CURRANTS.
BULBS[20][EDIT]
AS THE NAME SUGGESTS, BULBS ARE INFLATED
PARTS OF THE STEM WITHIN WHICH LIE THE
CENTRAL SHOOTS OF NEW PLANTS. THEY ARE
TYPICALLY UNDERGROUND AND ARE
SURROUNDED BY PLUMP AND LAYERED
LEAVES THAT PROVIDE NUTRIENTS TO THE NEW
PLANT.
EXAMPLES OF PLANTS THAT USE BULBS ARE 
SHALLOTS, LILIES AND TULIPS.
TUBERS[19][EDIT]
THESE STRUCTURES DEVELOP FROM EITHER
THE STEM OR THE ROOT. STEM TUBERS GROW
FROM RHIZOMES OR RUNNERS THAT SWELL
FROM STORING NUTRIENTS WHILE ROOT
TUBERS PROPAGATE FROM ROOTS THAT ARE
MODIFIED TO STORE NUTRIENTS AND GET TOO
LARGE AND PRODUCE A NEW PLANT.
EXAMPLES OF STEM TUBERS ARE POTATOES
 AND YAMS AND EXAMPLES OF ROOT TUBERS
ARE SWEET POTATOES AND DAHLIAS.
CORMS[21][EDIT]
CORMS ARE SOLID ENLARGED UNDERGROUND
STEMS THAT STORE NUTRIENTS IN THEIR
FLESHY AND SOLID STEM TISSUE AND ARE
SURROUNDED BY PAPERY LEAVES. CORMS
DIFFER FROM BULBS IN THAT THEIR CENTERS
CONSISTS OF SOLID TISSUE WHILE BULBS
CONSIST OF LAYERED LEAVES.
EXAMPLES OF PLANTS THAT USE CORMS ARE 
GLADIOLUS AND TARO.
SUCKERS[22][EDIT]
ALSO KNOWN AS ROOT SPROUTS, SUCKERS
ARE PLANT STEMS THAT ARISE FROM BUDS ON
THE BASE OF PARENT PLANTS STEMS OR ON
ROOTS.
EXAMPLES OF PLANTS THAT USE SUCKERS
ARE APPLE AND BANANA TREES.
Plantlets[23][edit]
Miniature structures that arise from meristem in leaf margins that eventually develops
roots and drop from the leaves they grew on.
An example of a plant that uses plantlets is the Bryophyllum daigremontianum
 (syn. Kalanchoe daigremontianum), which is also known as mother of thousands for
its many plantlets.
KEIKIS[11][EDIT]
ADDITIONAL OFFSHOOTS WHICH DEVELOP ON
VEGETATIVE STEMS OR FLOWER STALKS OF
SEVERAL ORCHIDS GENERA.
EXAMPLES OF PLANTS THAT USE KEIKIS ARE
THE PHALAENOPSIS, EPIDENDRUM, AND 
DENDROBIUM GENERA OF ORCHIDS.
Artificial means of vegetative propagation
BUDDING
MARCOTTING
Cutting[24][edit]
A part of the plant, usually a
stem or a leaf, is cut off and
planted. Adventitious roots
grow from cuttings and a
new plant eventually
develops. Usually those
cuttings are treated with 
hormones before being
planted to induce growth.
Example :rose;hibiscus.
Grafting[25][edit]
A scion, or a desired cutting,
is attached to the stem of
another plant that remains
rooted in the ground.
Eventually both tissue
systems become grafted or
integrated and a plant with
the characteristics of the
grafted plant develops.e.g
mango, gauva, et grafting

Budding
Layering[26][edit]
This process includes the bending of
plant branches or stems so that
they touch the ground and are
covered with soil. Adventitious
roots develops from the
underground part of the plant,
which is known as the layer. This
method of vegetative reproduction
also occurs naturally. Another
similar method, air layering,
involved the scraping and
replanting of tree branches which
develop into trees.
Suckering[27][edit]
Suckers grow and form a
dense compact mat that is
attached to the parent
plant. Too many suckers
can lead to smaller crop
size, so excess suckers
are pruned, and mature
suckers are transplanted
to a new area where they
develop into new plants.
Tissue culture[28][9][edit]
Plant cells are taken from
various parts of the plant and
are cultured and nurtured in a
sterilized container. The mass
of developed tissue, known as
the callus, is then cultured in
a hormone-ladened medium
and eventually develops into
plantlets which are then
planted and eventually
develop into grown plants.
Offset[29][edit]
An offset is the lower
part of a single culm
 with the rhizome
axis basal to it and
its roots. Planting of
these is the most
conventional way of
propagating bamboo.
Apomixis[30][edit]
The process of asexual
reproduction
through seed, in the
absence of meiosis
and fertilization,
generating clonal
progeny of maternal
origin.
 Modified Stems
Types of Stem Characteristics Function Example

1. Stolons/Runners - Horizontal and above ground - Spreading growth Strawberry

stem - Asexual reproduction
- Creeping stems
- New plants developed at the
nodes touching the soil
2. Tubers - Enlarged underground stem - Food storage Potato, sweet potato

3. Rhizomes - Long and underground stem - Food storage Ginger

- Fleshy and parallel to the ground

4. Bulbs - Thickened bases of leaves - Food storage in leafy Onion, garlic

scale

5. Corms - vertical, thick, and short under- - Food storage Gabi or Taro stem
ground stem

6. Succulent - fleshy, often leafless stem - Water storage Cactus

 ANIMALS VS. PLANTS

Plant Reproduction Animal Reproduction

Alternation of No alternation of
Life cycle
generations generations

Gametes Haploid gametes Haploid gametes

Spores Haploid spores No spores

Gametes made Haploid gametophyte, Diploid organism, by

by by mitosis meiosis

Spores made Diploid sporophyte, by

No spores
by meiosis