Chapter 10 .

The Process of Evolution

Content Standards:

The learners demonstrate the understanding of:

 the evidence for evolution

 the origin and extinction of species

Performance Standards:

The learners shall be able to :

1. Design a poster tracing the evolutionary changes in a crop plant (e.g., rice or corn) that

occurred through domestication

Learning Competencies:

The learners:

a. describe evidence of evolution such as homology, DNA/protein sequences, plate

tectonics, fossil record, embryology, and artificial selection/agriculture

b. explain how populations of organisms have changed and continue to change over time

showing patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to produce the

organismal diversity observed today

c. describe how the present system of classification of organisms is based on evolutionary

relationships

BIG IDEA
Species become extinct when the animals can no longer compete or adapt to gradually
changing environment.

The theory of evolution offers an explanation for the existence of all living organisms on
the Earth today and in the past. It supposes that present day organisms have all been derived
from organisms that lived in the past. By a series of very small changes over millions of years
new species have developed from previous species. Over a period of about 3000 million years,
many new species have been produced and many have become extinct. We know a great deal
about the organisms that lived millions of years ago from studying their fossilised remains.
 Evolution happens when populations of organisms with inherited variations are exposed
to environmental factors that favor the reproductive success of some individuals over others.
Natural selection is the editing mechanism. Evolution is based on adaptations.
Species gradually change over time, what are the evidences of this so-called Evolution?

1.Fossils. Fossils provide a strong evidence of evolution.

A fossil is the preserved remains or imprints of ancient
organisms. Someone who studies fossils is called a
paleontologist. Fossils are found in sedimentary rock formed
when sand and silt settle to the bottom of water. Fossils show
that organisms have appeared in a historical sequence. Many
fossils link early extinct species with species living today
Determining Age of Fossils:
 Relative dating
 Looks at the layer of the earth they are found.
 The oldest fossils will be deeper.
 Radioactive dating
 Determined by remaining radioactive isotopes the fossil contains. Scientists
estimate the age of fossils by analyzing the isotope in the rock around fossils.Some
isotopes are radioactive and undergo radioactive decay. During radioactive decay,
the isotope gives off particles and energy changing its identity to a different
element. It occurs during a constant rate, called its half life. For instance,
radioactive potassium (40K) decays to produce argon gas. Its half-life is 1.3 billion
years.The half-life of an element is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample
to undergo radioactive decay.
Types of Radioactive Dating:
 Potassium-Argon dating is used for rocks that are suspected billions of years old. In older
rocks the ratio of Argon to 40K will be higher than in younger rocks. Why? This is because
in the younger rocks the K has not yet started to decay to Argon.
 Carbon dating: 2 types 14C:12C
o Radioactive 14C
o Non-radioactive 12C, most common
According to evolutionary theory, all life originated from a common unicellular ancestor
through natural selection. Scientists use radioactive dating to calculate fossil’s age. The phylogeny
(or evolutionary tree), is not linear, it branches and stops and some of it is incomplete.
Explanations of the origin of diversity go back to the Greek’s 2000 ya. They theorized that an
organisms’ form is related to its function.
 In 1769 Charles Bonnet observed that fossils do not resemble modern organisms and
theorizes they are from a previous era.
 In 1785 James Hutton proposed the Earth is shaped by geological forces that took place
over extremely long periods of time. He estimated the earth is millions, not thousands of
years old.
 Charles Lyell agreed and wrote a book in 1833 the explained the shaping of Earth’s
geological features.
 He gave his book to Darwin before Darwin set sail.Prior to the studies of Charles Darwin,
the most widespread belief was that all known species were created at the same time and
remained unchanged throughout history.
 Some scientists at the time believed that features an individual acquired during a lifetime
could be passed onto its offspring, and the species could gradually change to fit an
environment better.
 In 1809 Jean-Baptiste Lamarke hypothesized that “simple” organisms emerge
spontaneously and evolve to greater “complexity”.
 Lamark’s hypothesis about acquired characteristics was disproved by Weisman, who
concluded that changes in an individual during a lifetime do not affect its offspring.

3 Principles to his Theory:

 Organisms constantly strive to improve themselves.
 Most used body structures develop and unused waste away.
 A structure is modified by use or disuse, the modification is inherited to the
offspring. (Inheritance of acquired characteristics.)
 Darwin argued that only biologically inherited characteristics were advantageous in
surviving and reproducing. The offspring would also inherit and pass on those
advantages, and over generations the aggregation of these inherited advantages would
lead to new species.
 In 1798 Malthus reasoned that if the human population continued to grow unchecked,
sooner or later there would be insufficient living space and food for everyone.
 On Population control, Darwin read Malthus’ work reasoned that there is always
competition for food, water and space in the environment. The individuals that survive
the competition can then reproduce.

2. Artificial Selection
When he returned home, he studied and read other people’s materials about
geological changes.He also studied the selective breeding of domestic animals and crops.
 He found that any domesticated plant or animal bred to accentuate desirable
characteristics is the result of artificial selection. (Natural provides variation and humans
select the variations useful)
 Many veggies we eat today came from the wild mustard plant through artificial selection.
On origin of Species, Darwin’s book, published in 1859, was a quick success. It
came from the clear and understandable argument that natural selection and selective
breeding of animals was in wide use at the time. There was a massive array of biological
and fossil evidence to support the argument.
Selective breeding refers to the breeding of organisms to produce certain desired traits in
their offspring.
 Other supported the idea, after the publication of Origin of Species, biological evolution
was supported by the rediscovery of the genetics experiments of Gregor Mendel, by the
 identification of genes and how they are sorted in reproduction, and by the discovery that
the genetic code found in DNA is the same for almost all organisms. Darwin came to his
conclusions prior to Mendel’s work.
3. Variation
A species consists of interbreeding populations
organisms that produce healthy offspring.
Within a species there is much variation or
differences between members of a population.
Variation can be subtle or dramatic. Organisms
may vary according to fur color, shape of teeth,
markings, eye color and even size.
Variation can be brought about by (a)mutation
and (b) recombination.Most mutations are either
neutral or harmful, sometimes they may increase
the chance for survival, esp. when the
environment is changing.
Altered genes may be passed on to every cell that develops from it. This may help,
harm, or have little or no effect on the offspring’s success in the environment.
4. Biodiversity
In communities populations of organisms live to together, interact, and often
compete for natural resources. These communities include a collection of niches. The
variety and abundance of species that make up a biological community is called
biodiversity.
There are between 5 and 30 million different species. About 99% of all organisms
that ever lived are now extinct. Biodiversity is good. The great diversity of species
increases the chance that at least some living things will survive in the face of the large
changes in the environment. Genetic recombination allows for a greater diversity.
Through adaptation, populations often become suited to a specific niche.
Niche refers to the habitat and the role of a population plays in that habitat. The
niche defines where organisms live, what and how they eat, how they raise their offspring,
what their predators are, the space, light, moisture and temperature and other abiotic
factors of the environment.
5. Adaptation
An adaptation is an inherited trait that increases a population’s chance of survival
and reproduction in a particular environment. The ability of an individual to survive and
reproduce in its specific environment is fitness.
The “Survival of the Fittest”, states that individuals that are best suited to an
environment (adaptations that enable fitness) survive and reproduce most successfully.
Over time, natural selection results in changes in the inherited characteristics of a
population. These changes increase a species fitness in its environment.
6. Natural Selection
Natural Selection leads to organisms that are well suited in particular
environments. It provides a scientific explanation for the history of life on Earth as
 depicted in the fossil record and similarities evident within the diversity of existing
organisms.
4 Main Points in Natural Selection
1. There is variation with a population.
2. Some variations are favorable.
3. Not all young produced in each generation survive.
4. Individuals that survive and reproduce are those
with favorable variations.

 Ostriches are the fasted birds on land due to favorable traits

such as long, powerful legs.

7. Descent with Modification

Over time, natural selection produces organisms that have different structure, establish
different niches, or occupy different habitats. As a result, they look different from their ancestors.
What do you think the common ancestor to tigers, panthers and cheetahs looked like?
 Common descent- all living and extinct organisms were derived from a common ancestor.

8. Structures
Homologous Structures refers to the traits that are similar in different species
because the species share a common ancestor.
Ankle. Arm, fin and wing may have evolved from the forelimb of a common
vertebrate.
Vestigial Structures are inherited structures , but reduced in size and often
unused. For example, pythons have hip and leg bones, eventually disappeared through
time.
Analogous structures are those that are similar in function, but are not inherited
from a common ancestor. For instance, insect and bird wings share common ancestors.
9. DNA History
Scientists rely on embryology and biochemistry
to understand evolution. Gill pouches in all
vertebrates.

Embryology is the study of the early stages of

an organisms development. Biochemists study and
compare chemicals found in living things.

Darwin argued that living things have been evolving on Earth for millions of
years. The following are the strong evidences of evolution, according to him:
1. Fossil Record. Fossils are retrieved from the layers of Earth.
 2. Geographical distribution of living species. Similar animals in different locations were
the product of different lines of evolutionary descent.
3. Homologous structures. Similarities in early development (embryology)
4. The more genetic variation within a population, the better chance it has to survive.
2 sources of Genetic Variation
 Mutations
 Genetic recombination during meiosis specifically during crossing over.
Gene pool states that all the combined genetic material of all of the members of a given
population.
Allele frequency refers to the number of each allele, which is a fraction of all of the genes
for a particular trait. In genetic terms, evolution is any change in the allele frequency (relative
frequency) of alleles in a population. Sexual reproduction can produce many different
phenotypes, but it does not change the relative frequency of alleles in a population. Think of deck
of cards. There are many possible combinations.In any population, but especially small
populations, allele frequencies change over time by chance. These are controlled by genetic
expression. Single and polygenic traits are controlled by one and may genes, respectively. For
instance, widows peak, freckles and even the capability to roll a tongue is a single trait controlled
by one gene. Body stature, eye color and height are controlled by many genes, thus called
polygenetic traits.
Natural Selection on Single Gene traits can lead to changes in allele
frequencies…evolution. Organisms of one color, may produce fewer offspring than organisms of
other colors.

Natural selection can affect the distributions of phenotypes in 3 ways.

1.Directional selection
Directional selection favors those individuals who have extreme variations in traits within a
population. A useful example can be found in the breeding of the greyhound dog. Early breeders
were interested in dog with the greatest speed. They carefully selected from a group of hounds
those who ran the fastest. From their offspring, the greyhound breeders again selected those dogs
who ran the fastest. By continuing this selection for those dogs who ran faster than most of the
hound dog population, they gradually produced a dog who could run up to 64km/h (40mph).
The greyhound was originally used to hunt the fastest of game, fox and deer. Their bred dates to
Egypt in 3BC. Directional Selection occurs when a change in the environment favors an extreme
phenotype.

2. Disruptive selection
Disruptive selection occurs when an environmental change makes it unfavorable to have a
medium phenotype. You need an extreme one.

3. Stabilizing selection
This occurs when individuals that are best able to adapt to their environments are more likely
to live to reproduce. In stabilizing selection, the majority of given population is adapted for
survival instead of individuals with extreme characteristics. Because of this, a population’s
diversity is reduced. However, gene mutation helps keep members of the population from
becoming identical. Stabilizing selection most often occurs in genetic traits that are caused by
more than one gene.

Hardy Weinberg Principle

If a population is not evolving, the allele frequencies in the population remain stable. This
constant state of allele frequency is called genetic equilibrium. It states that, under specific
conditions, allele frequencies in a population remain constant from generation to generation. If
specific conditions are not met, genetic equilibrium in interrupted and the population may
evolve.
5 Conditions to Maintain Genetic Equilibrium
1. No natural selection
2. Random mating
3. No migration
4. No significant mutations.
5. Very large population

Genetic Drift is the random change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance
events, such as natural disasters or migration. (Would genetic drift have a greater impact on
smaller or larger populations?) For example, Florida Panther were hunted thus produced less
genetic variation, which gives a window for texas cougars to be introduced.
“Bottlenecking” is when genetic drift occurs after a random population reducing event. The
more variation, the easier it is to survive because they can adapt
better.
Founder Effect happens when allele frequency change as a
result of the migration of a small subgroup of population. Will
the new population become different or more like the parent
population?
 Due to chance
 Ex: Hawaiian Fruit Flies
10.Speciation
Speciation is the evolution of one or more species from a
single ancestor species.It can occur when members of a
population become isolated from each other. (possibly from
earthquakes.)
 Once two populations are reproductively isolated, they
are considered separate species.
 Allopatric Speciation(a.ka. Geographical Isolation)
Physical barrier such as continental split, rise in sea
level, formation of mountain range, advance of
glacier, change in habitat, prevents gene flow
between populations of a species.

Behavioral Isolation
Two populations are capable of
interbreeding, but have differences in courtship
rituals or other reproductive strategies.
Temporal Isolation
Two or more species reproduce at different
times. For example, orchid releasing pollens on different days, they can’t pollinate each
other.

According to Darwin’s theory on Speciation among

Galapagos’ finches: Speciation occurs by:
 Founding of a new population.
 Geographic isolation
 Changes in new population’s gene pool
 Reproductive isolation
 Ecological competition

There were two major extinctions that happened on Earth’s

history:
 Cretaceous- more than half of all existing species wiped
out. Dinosaurs’ extinction happened 65 mya.
 Permian- reduced the number of species by 90%.
This happened 250 mya during Pangea, where there was
less water habitat.

Evolution does not occur in a set direction. Evolution builds

on what already exists, so the more
variety there is, the more there can be in
the future. However, evolution does not
necessitate long-term progress in a set
direction.
Rate of Evolution
 Gradualism- theory that new species evolve as the
genomes of two populations differentiate over enormous
spans of time.
(Small genetic changes occur slowly within a population.)
 Punctuated equilibrium- theory that populations remain
genetically stable for long period of time, interrupted by
brief periods of repaid genetic change.
 Rapid genetic changes in a population can result in the
evolution of new species.

Mechanisms of Evolution
 Divergent Evolution happens when isolated populations of a species evolve
independently. It occurs when geographic barriers separate population members or when
a small group leaves an original population. For example, geographical barriers create
polar bears and brown bears in the process.
 Convergent Evolution occurs when natural selection has produced analogous adaptations
in response to similar environment between different species. For example, maned wolf
and serval cat eat same food, legs are the same, and ears are more or less the same.
 Coevolution occurs when species that interact closely
often adapt to one another in a process called
coevolution. For instance, predatory birds and mimicry
of butterflies, parasites and hosts, plant-eating animals
and the plants they eat, plants and the animals that
pollinate them coevolved in the process.

Adaptive Radiation
Adaptive Radiation is the evolution of many diversely adapted
species from one common ancestor. It usually occurs on an
isolated island. The finches that Darwin studied all came from
common ancestor, but had different beaks for the kind of food they ate.

Why is understanding evolution important? How do each of these effect you?

Understanding evolution is important because it helps us solve some problems that may
have impacted our lives directly or indirectly. For instance, in order to find cure for a hereditary
disease, one has to study evolutionary histories of a disease-causing gene . In this regard, our
understanding of evolution can help improve our lives. Another instance is that the
understanding of evolution, helps human devise drug resistance to viruses and bacteria, pesticide
resistance crops and many other including selective breeding.
Classification and Evolution
Humans have been classifying organisms since then. Today, biologist classify organisms not
by their usefulness but by their physical, chemical and behavioral similarities. These similarities
reveal evolutionary relationships.
 Carl Von Linnae ( Carolus Linnaeus ) developed the modern classification scheme. He did
two-term naming Binomial Nomenclature.
The Modern System created a Nested Hierarchy-Seven Levels of Organizati
 Each kingdom (plant and animal) was divided into a phylum* (division for plants)
 Each phylum into a smaller groups called class.
 Each class was divided into an order.
 Each order was divided into family (families).
 Each family was divided into a genus (plural-genera)
 Each genus was divided into a species. (scientific name)
Note: Phyla and family were not in Linnaeus’s classification system but were added by modern
scientists.
In order to remember easily, a mnemonic devise
could help :
Levels of Classification ( from the most inclusive
to the most exclusive are: )
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family,
Genus, and Species
Remember: King Philip Came Over For
Grandma’s Soup
How does classification of living things reflect
evolutionary history?
Phylogeny is a branching tree that reflects the
evolutionary relationships
among species. Cladistics is
an approach to constructing a
phylogeny using a clade,
group of organisms related by
descent.It determines the
order in which evolutionary
lines diverged or branched.
Organisms are grouped
according to shared
characteristic. Cladograms
convey comparative
information about relative
relations.