Chapter 8: How Do Organism Reproduce

8.1 Introduction

We all are aware of the fact that how races of species are continued .we have seen in our own
families that generations form generations and so on and the race of humans or any other
species continues. This is possible just due to the act of reproduction. So, in this chapter we
are going to study about it in detail.
Reproduction is defined as the “ process of giving birth to young ones.”
As you can see in the picture that this adult dog gave birth to puppies and then these puppies
will transform in to adult dogs and then they become parents to new puppies and so on the
race continues

There are two  major types of reproduction:

i. Asexual
ii. Sexual

Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction

i) Biparental i) Uniparental

ii) Fertilization takes place ii) No fertilization takes place

iii) Young ones inherit some characters of iii) Young ones are clones of the parent.
parents & some new ones.

iv) It leads to evolution. iv) It does not lead to evolution.

v) Eg: in humans v) Eg: in Amoeba

 
 
And if we try to visualize the difference between two we comes to notice that in asexual only
one parent is involved and it forms offspring identical or we can say clone of parent whereas
in sexual two parents are involved , the act of fertilization occurs and it also leads to
development of new characteristics.
Reproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number and increase their
population.
Asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that involves only one organism. A single
organism reproduces two or multiple organism on its own. This is seen in all unicellular
organism, some multicellular organism and few plants.
The mode of reproduction that involves two individual; one male and one female. They
produce sex cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism.
8.2 Asexual Reproduction- Fission
An organism splits to form two/more new individuals

Types:

o Binary fission
o Multiple fission
Binary fission

o Two new individuals are formed

o Nucleus divides only once
o Unicellular organisms like amoeba, paramecium, euglena, bacteria
Multiple fission

o Many new individuals are formed

o Nucleus divides repeatedly
o Takes place during unfavorable conditions (cyst formation takes place)

o Amoeba, plasmodium, many algae

Budding

 Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is

formed on the parent’s body which gives rise to a new individual.
 Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new
individual (hydra).
8.3 Fragmentation

o Parent breaks into multiple pieces on maturity, each of which gives rise to a new
individual
o Seen in simple multicellular organisms (Spirogyra)

Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented into smaller pieces and
each piece grows into a whole new organism

8.4 Regeneration
o Parent if cut/broken into multiple pieces , each gives rise to a new individual
o This is an accidental process
o Hydra, flatworm, tapeworm

Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body part by the organism (e.g.
Lizard).
 Regeneration in Planaria

8.5 Vegetative Propagation

It is the mode of asexual reproduction in plants. Plant parts are detached from the parent &
form a new plant. Structures which help in vegetative propagation are called Vegetative
propagules. Example: Rhizome, tuber etc.

Natural vegetative propagation

o Root
o Stem
o Leaves

Vegetative propagation by stems in plants like strawberry

Artificial vegetative propagation

o Cutting
o Layering
o Grafting
 Artificial vegetative propagation: Grafting

Natural Vegetative propagation

By roots
o Buds develop in thick, fleshy roots which later, when put into soil develop into new
plants
o Guava, sweet potato, dahlia

By stems
Runners
o Stems that grow horizontally above ground
o Examples: Grass, strawberry
Underground stems
o Potato’s tubers which are fleshy are underground storage structures. Buds give rise
to aerial shoots under favorable conditions.
o Ginger’s rhizomes are modified stems found underground. Buds appear at their
nodes which can give rise to new plants.
o Onion’s bulbs are short underground vertical shoots with thickened leaves. Roots
emerge from underside of the stem.

By leaves
o Buds are formed along leaf margins which later give rise to a new plant
o Examples: Bryophyllum

Artificial Vegetative Propagation

Cutting
A plant part is cut from the parent & put into the soil which later give rise to a new plant.

o Stem cutting: Rose, sugarcane

o Root cutting: Dahlia
 Stem cutting in Rose plant

Layering
o New plants are formed from stems of parent plant without detaching them initially
from the parent. A variety of plants can be grown by this method like strawberry,
guava, lemon, china rose etc..
o Mound layering
A branch is pulled towards ground and then a part of it is covered with moist soil. New roots
later develop from this part, after which it gets detached from the parent plant.

o Air layering
An aerial branch is scraped and covered with moist mud which is then covered with plastic.
New roots develop after sometime, after which the new part gets detached from the parent.
Grafting
Stems cut from two different plants are attached to grow as a single plant. This improves the
quality of certain plants.

8.6 Spore Formation

Spore formation is a method in asexual reproduction, it generally happen in non flowering

plants such as fungi and bacteria. In this the parent plant generates thousands of spores which
individually grow in a plant. these spores are microscopic and round in shape and grow in
suitable condition. ie

Formation of new individual by germination of spores

Spores are unicellular bodies in the parent that are capable of growing into a new individual
 Spore formation in fungi, Rhizopus

o Conidia
o Non-motile spores of fungus (Penicilium)
o Termed as Mitospores
o Zoospores
o Motile spores
o Uses Flagellum for locomotion
o Used as a mode of asexual reproduction by some algae, bacteria & fungi

Zoospore formation in Chlamydomonas under favorable conditions

8.7 Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a complex life cycle in which a

gamete (such as a sperm or egg cell) with a single set of chromosomes (haploid) combines
with another to produce a organism composed of cells with two sets of chromosomes
(diploid).

o Mode of reproduction in which new individuals are formed from two parents
o Sex is involved (Fusion between male & female gametes give rise to the new
organism)
o New individuals are not identical to the parents
o Variations occur
o Relatively slower mode of reproduction
Advantages of Sexual reproduction
o To incorporate variations in species which in turn ensures survival of a species
o Each individual in a species has its own uniqueness & identity
o Enables organisms to survive under unfavorable conditions

Two types of cell division seen in eukaryotic organisms:

Mitosis

 Takes place in somatic cells
 Maintains the chromosome number
 Produces two, diploid daughter cells
 Required for asexual reproduction, development and growth, cell replacement and 
regeneration
Meiosis

 Takes place in sex cells.
 Reduces the number of chromosomes by half.
 Produces four haploid daughter cells
 Required for sexual reproduction i.e gamete formation
Gametes
o Gametes are the Sex cells
o In some organisms, Male & Female gametes are identical to each other (Isogamy)
Example: Spirogyra
o While in some others, Male & Female gametes are different from each other
(Anisogamy) Example: Human beings
o Male gamete: motile
o Female gamete: food storage
o Fusion of male & female gametes gives rise to a new organism

8.8 Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Flower is the Reproductive organ of a plant

A flower is said to be :

Unisexual:

o if either male/ female reproductive part is present in it

o g: papaya, watermelon
Bisexual:

o if both male & female reproductive parts are present in it

o g: china rose, mustard

Sexual vs. Asexual reproduction in plants

Asexual Reproduction
o Easier & faster mode of reproduction
o Seedless plants can also be grown by vegetative propagation
o Desired traits can be preserved through generations
o New plants formed are genetically identical to parents
o More prone to diseases
o No genetic variations
Sexual Reproduction
o Relatively slower mode of reproduction
o Genetic variations are seen
o Less prone to diseases

Structure of a Flower
o Stalk: Holds the flower
o Thalamus: Swollen upper portion of stalk
o Petals: Colored parts of a flower which attracts insects
o Sepals: Ensures protection
o Stamen: Male reproductive organ which produce male gametes (pollen grains)
o Carpel: Female reproductive organ which produce female gametes (ovum/egg)
Male reproductive structure in a Flower : Stamen
Stamens are the male reproductive structures in a plant. The structure of a stamen consists of
3 important parts:

o Filament
o Stalk that bears anthers
o Anther
o Bilobed structure at the tip of filament
o Each lobe has 2 pollen sacs
o A total of 4 pollen sacs are present in a anther
o Each sac produces spores, which later develop into pollen grains, the male
gametes
o Connective
o Part attached to the back of anther

Female reproductive structure in a flower: Carpel

 
Carpel has 3 important parts in a flower                

o Ovary
o Basal enclosed part of carpel
o Ovarian cavity is termed as Locule
o Encloses ovule in it
o Ovules are attached to cushion-like structure called Placenta
o Style
o Tube like structure that connects the Ovary & Stigma
o Stigma
o Located at the exposed end of Style
o Acts as the receptive surface for pollen grains

Sexual reproduction in plants: Steps

 Following steps together complete sexual reproduction in plants:
o Pollination
o Fertilization
o Seed formation
o Germination
Pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma is termed as Pollination. This transfer of
pollen grains occurs with the help of pollinating agents like wind, water, insects, birds etc.

There are 2 types of pollination:

o Self pollination
o Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same flower
o Seen in leguminous plants like pea
o Cross pollination
o Transfer of pollen grains from anther of one plant to stigma of the another
plant
o Seen in large number of plants like onions, broccoli etc..
Fertilization
o Fusion of pollen & egg is called fertilization
o Fertilization takes place inside the female reproductive part
o Zygote is formed which later grows into embryo
Seed formation
o Zygote divides repeatedly to form Embryo
o Ovule develops a thick coat & forms seed
o Ovary ripens to form fruit

Germination
o Development of a seedling from a seed
8.9 Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings

o Sexual reproduction is the only mode of reproduction

o Period during which the rate of general body growth slows down & reproductive
tissues starts maturing is termed as Puberty/ Adolescence
o A human male reaches puberty at 13-14 years, whereas a female reaches the same
around 11-13 years
                                 

Following changes are observed during Puberty:

Male
o Thick hair growth under armpits & genital area
o Facial hair
o Change in voice
o Occasional Penis enlargement
Female
o Start of menstruation cycle
o Breast enlargement
o Hair growth under armpits & genital area

Human Male Reproductive system

 Human male reproductive system consists of the following parts:

o Testes
o Occur in pairs
o Produce sperms
o Produce male hormone, testosterone
o Scrotum
 o Extension of abdominal cavity containing testes
o Protects testes
o Maintains a temperature lower than body temperature
o Epididymis
o Complex tube like structure in scrotum
o Stores sperms, helps in passage of sperms
o Vas deferens
o Tube like structure emerging from lower part of epididymus
o Opens to the ejaculatory duct
o Penis
o Muscular, copulatory organ
o Discharge sperms when stimulated
o Urethra
o Tube like structure
o Common passage for both sperms & urine

Reproductive glands:

o Prostate gland
o Secretes milky fluid that helps in sperms mobility
o Seminal vesicles
o Produce viscous fluid which help in sperm mobility in female
o Cowper’s gland
Secretes mucous to lubricate female passage

Male reproductive system

 The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.

  They produce the male sex cells called sperms and also produce male sex hormone
testosterone.

Male main reproductive organs

 The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.

 They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body and contain seminiferous tubules as
the structural and functional unit.
 Male sex cells, sperms, are produced by seminiferous tubules and matured in the
epididymis.
 Leydig cells or interstitial cells present in between the seminiferous tubules secrete
hormone testosterone.

Male accessory reproductive organs

 Several accessory reproductive organs that aid in the reproductive process.

 The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles are glands of reproductive system which
make semen and nourish the sperms.
 Penis, having urethra passing through it, is called copulatory organ.

Male Ducts

 In males, the vas deferens and the urethra are the main ducts.
 A single vas deferens carries sperms from respective testis up to urethra.
 Urethra acts as a common passage for semen and urine.
Sperms: The male gametes
o Tiny bodies with long tail
o Mainly composed of genetic material
o Sperms are produced in testes. Around 12 billion sperms are produced per month.
o Sperms move from Testes to Epididymus where they mature
o Before intercourse, Penis gets filled with blood and becomes erect.
o Mature sperms move from Epididymus to Vas deferens
o Ducts of seminal vesicle and prostate gland combine with Vas deferens to form the
Ejaculatory duct
o The liquid mixture (consisting of sperm) from the Ejaculatory duct joins the urethra
and gets ejaculated.
o Of 300 million sperms ejaculated, only 200- 300 survive to reach the egg cell & only
one succeed to fertilize it.

Female Reproductive System

Female reproductive system consists of the following parts:

o A pair of Ovaries
o One on each side of uterus
o Produce female sex cell (ovum/ova)
o Secrete female hormones estrogen & progesterone
o Fallopian tube
o Exist in pairs , originating from uterus extending up to each ovary
o Receives ovum from ovary
o Uterus
o Pear-shaped muscular hollow structure
o Foetus develops here
o Cervix
o Narrow lower part of uterus
o Vagina
o Tube like structure
o Sperm discharge occurs here
o Acts as birth canal
The human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian
tubes/oviducts and the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina.
Female main reproductive organ

 The main reproductive organ in a female is a pair of ovaries.

 They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also produce female sex
hormones called estrogen and progesterone.

Female accessory reproductive organ

 Uterus and vagina are the accessory reproductive organs in human females.
 The uterus is the site of fetal development and vagina receives sperms from the male.

Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation (Also refer art 8..11)

Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the ovum from the ovary and its removal
from the body when fertilization does not happen.

 During menstruation, the blood-rich endometrium of the uterus also breaks down
while the ovum is being removed from the body.
 Two pituitary hormones, LH and FSH and two ovarian hormones, estrogen and
progesterone, all have their roles in menstruation.
 In humans, the cycle repeats every 28 days.
Alternate Approach to Understand Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Ovaries- It is a pair of ovaries which is present in the females and their function is egg
production facilitated by the hormone oestrogen.
Fallopian tube- It is a tube that receives ovum.
Uterus- It is a Sac where the embryo develops.
Cervix- It is the cap of the vagina.
Vagina- The Outer exposed part of the female reproductive system is called vagina.

Ovum: The female gamete

o Ovum is the female sex cell. Also called Egg cell
o Ova are produced by epithelium in ovary
o Release of ovum from ovary is termed as Ovulation
o Ovary gets matured by puberty
o Ova are produced by germinal epithelium of ovary
o Formation of ova starts in foetus even before birth. At birth, there are 2-3
lakhs immature eggs. After attaining puberty, these immature eggs start getting
matured under the influence of hormones from pituitary gland.
o One matured ovum is released from either ovary at every 28 days. This
process of release is Ovulation
8.10 Fertilization in Human Beings

Fertilization is internal in human beings

o This process occurs in the fallopian tube

o Ovum comes from ovary to Fallopian tube. Unfertilized egg remains alive for
approx. 24 hours
o Sperms enter through vagina and reach the Fallopian tube. Sperm must fertilize the
egg within the above time.
o Sperm enters the egg
o Fusion of nucleus of sperm & ovum is termed as Fertilization

o Fertilization leads to the formation of single-celled Zygote

o Zygote undergoes repeated divisions, and gets implanted in the uterus. This is now
called as Embryo. Embryo in advanced stages of development is termed as Foetus.
o Uterus also prepares itself to receive the embryo. It thickens its walls. Embryo
descends into uterus in 4-5 days from the day of fertilization.
o Embryo in the uterus receives nutrients from the mother’s body through the
Umbilical cord which in turn is connected to the uterine wall of mother through
Placenta. Placenta: is a structure formed by specialized tissues of fetus & uterine wall
of mother.
o Nutrients enter through this cord, and wastes go out of the foetus body. Umbilical
cord also has arteries & veins for exchange of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
In other words

In fertilization the  following events occurs:

i. Ovulation – It is the release of ovum from the ovary into the fallopian tube. With the
ovulation, thickening of uterine wall takes place. Ovulation occurs every month in
female after attaining puberty (i.e. after the age of 13).

i. Copulation - During intercourse, sperm of the male is injected into the female’s
vaginal tract. In one secretion there are a million sperms but only one sperm is
capable of fusing with the ovum. All others are degenerated.

i. Fertilization – The fusion of sperm & egg is called fertilization & it take place in the
fallopian tube. As a result diploid zygote is formed.

i. Implantation– The fixing of the zygote into the uterine wall is called
implantation.This takes place after few days of fertilization.

i. Placenta- It is the temporary formed tissue that provides nutrition to the growing
embryo or developing zygote.

i. Gestation period– It is the period of development of zygote into full grown foetus. In
humans it is of 9 month.

i. Parturition – Expelling a fully grown baby from mother’s body is known as

parturition.

 
8.11 Sexual Cycles in Females: Menstruation

o An egg is released from either of the ovaries every 28 days. The unfertilized egg is
alive for 24 hours after ovulation. Uterus prepares itself to receive the foetus. As a
result, the Endometrium thickens.
o If fertilization doesn’t take place, then no zygote is formed. Therefore, endometrium
breaks which results in bleeding through vagina.
o Process of bleeding though vagina due to breakage of endometrium is termed as
‘Menstruation’. This bleeding lasts for 2-6 days. This occurs approx. 14 days after
ovulation.
o Since Menstruation occurs every 28 days; this is also referred as Menstrual cycle

                              

o Menstrual cycle in a woman continues till 45-55 years of age, post which ovary
becomes dormant. No ovulation, no menstruation occurs after this. This is termed as
“Menopause”
Alternate Approach to understand Menstruation

Menstruation
 i. At the age of 13 years (Puberty) ovum production starts in the females.

i. Usually one ova is released in fallopian tube after 28 days.

i. During ovulation, uterine wall thickens & blood supply in it increases.

ii. If the ovum is not fertilized then thickened wall of uterus along with blood vessels is
bled

out from vagina & is called menstruation.

iii. It occurs 14 days after ovulation & last for 3-5 days.
iv. After menstruation, uterine wall starts building up so that it can receive next ovum.
v. The cycle of menstruation is repeated after every 28 days.
vi. Menarche: beginning of menstruation (start of 12-13 year of age)
vii. Menopause: stoppage of menstruation (around 50 year of age )

8.12 Reproductive Health

Reproductive Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being in all
aspects of reproduction. People should have adequate knowledge on the following:

o Knowledge of reproductive processes & organs

o Care of mother & child
Following points to be remembered to ensure good care of the mother & the child:

1.
Proper nutritious diet to pregnant woman as well as lactating mothers
2.
Proper age difference between children
3.
Planning a baby at the right age of mother (between 20-35 years)
4.
Restrict the number of children not to add to overpopulation
5.
Avoid unwanted pregnancy
o Family planning
Family planning is necessary to limit this huge increase in population.

Overpopulation can give rise to serious problems like lack of food, employment and
education which in turn would affect the economy and also the survival of population.

o Knowledge on STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases)

8.13 Family Planning

There are different means of population control as increasing population leads to increase in
demand. As we all know resources available are limited therefore population control is an
important concern :
Barrier method: in this devices like condoms etc. are used that prevent the sperm from
meeting the ovum.

Chemical method: There are 2 types of chemical methods

i. Oral pills
 i. Vaginal pills.

Oral pills- It contains hormones which obstruct ovulation

Vaginal pills- It contains spermicides that kill the sperms.
Surgical method:
In males – The  vas deferens in the male is cut & ligated that prevents the sperm from coming
out (vasectomy).

 
In females – The  fallopian tube in females is cut  & ligated that prevent ovulation
(Tubectomy).
Intrauterine Contraceptive Device- Devices like copper T.  prevents implantation.
 

o Condoms
o Balloon like elastic covering that tightly fits over the penis
o Collects ejaculated sperms during intercourse

8.14 Sexually Transmitted Disease

There exists many communicable diseases which spread by sexual contact during intercourse.
They are sexually transmitted diseases that are transmitted due to blood contact , used
syringes, sexual intercourse etc. The common sexually transmitted diseases are AIDS,
Gonorrhea, Syphilis etc.
                                          

Some of these STDs are:

o Gonorrhea
o Syphilis
o Caused by bacteria and can be treated with antibiotics
o HIV AIDS
o Caused by the HIV virus which destroys the immune system of the body.
There is no cure for AIDS till date. The person suffering from AIDS eventually dies
due to infection.
t is caused by the virus HIV. It is a fatal disease in which the immune system of a
person weakens and he becomes more prone to infection.
o Genital & anal warts.
To prevent STDs, ensure the following:

o Use of condoms during intercourse

o Wash before & after intercourse
o Confirm that a new partner is HIV tested before intercourse
How do organisms reproduce NCERT Book Solutions of CBSE Class 10 Notes of Science
Chapter 8 (Question Answers)
1. Asexual reproduction takes place through budding in
(a) amoeba.
(b) yeast.
(c) plasmodium.
(d) leishmania
Ans : yeast .
2. Which of the following is not a part of the female reproductive system in human beings?
(a)      (a)Ovary
(b) Uterus
(c) Vas deferens
(d) Fallopian tube
Ans : vas deferens
3. The anther contains
(a) sepals.
(b) ovules.
(c) pistil.
(d) pollen grains.
Ans : pollens
4. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
Ans: The advantage is that it leads to the development of new characters that leads to
evolution .
5. What are the functions performed by the testis in human beings?
Ans: The function of testis is spermatogenesis and also secrete male sex hormone
testosterone.
6. Why does menstruation occur?
Ans:a) At age of 12 years (Puberty) ovum production starts in females.
b) Usually one ova is released in fallopian tube after 28 days.
c) During ovulation, uterine wall thickens & blood supply in it increases.
d) If ovum is not fertilized then thickened wall of uterus along with blood vessels is bled out
from vagina & is called menstruation.
e) It occurs 14 days after ovulation & last for 3-5 days.
f) After menstruation, uterine wall starts building up so that it can receive next ovum.
The cycle of menstruation is repeated after every 28 day
7. Draw a labelled diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower.

Ans : 
8. What are the different methods of contraception?
Ans : a) Barrier method: in this devices like condoms etc. are used that prevent the sperms
from meeting ovum.
b) Chemical method: Two types are used i) oral pills ii) vaginal pills.
Oral pills contains – hormones which obstruct ovulation
Vaginal pills contain -spermicides that kills sperm.
c) Surgical method 
Males – their vas deferens is cut & ligated that prevents sperm from coming out (vasectomy).
Females – their fallopian tube is cut  & ligated that prevent ovulation (Tubectomy).
IUCD-
Intrauterine Contraceptive Device like copper T. This prevents implantation.
9. How are the modes for reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular organisms?
Ans: In unicellular asexual reproduction occurs whereas in multicellular sexual reproduction
occurs .the diffreence between the two is given below :

Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction

i) Biparental i) Uniparental

ii) Fertilization takes place ii) No fertilization takes place

iii) Young ones inherit some characters of iii) Young ones are clones of parent.
parents & some new ones.

iv) It leads to evolution. iv) It does not lead to evolution.

v) Eg: in humans v) Eg: in Amoeba

10. How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of species?

Ans: Living organisms reproduce for the continuation of particular species. It helps in
providing the stability to the population of species by producing a new individual that
resembles the parents. Like cats give birth to cats not dogs  it is due to the presence of
variation the species is better adapted to the environment .
11. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?
Ans : The reasons for adopting contraceptive methods are :

i. To prevent unwanted pregnancies

i. To control population rate

i. To prevent STDs