REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM

LIFE SPAN: Each and every organism can live only for a certain period of time.
* The period from birth to the natural death of an organism represents its life span.
* It may be as short as a few days or as long as a few thousand years.
* The life spans of organisms are not necessarily correlated with their sizes, the sizes of crows and parrots
are not very different yet their life spans show a wide difference.
* Similarly, a mango tree has a much shorter life span as compared to a peepal tree. Whatever be the life
span, death of every individual organism is a certainty, i.e., no individual is immortal, except single-celled
organisms.
* Life span of differ organisms:

REPRODUCTION
* Reproduction is defined as a biological process in which an organism produces young ones (offspring)
similar to itself.
The offspring grow, mature and in turn produce new offspring. Thus, there is a cycle of birth, growth and
death.
No individual is immortal, except unicellular organisms. There is no natural death in unicellular organisms.
FUNCTION/IMPORTANCE
Reproduction is necessary for the continuity of the species.
Sexual reproduction is responsible for variation in a population and its inheritance to future generations.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
* The reproduction is of two types.
(A) Asexual (B) Sexual

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S.No. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. Asexual reproduction does not involve Sexual reproduction involve formation of
formation of formation of gametes. formation of gametes.
2. The offspring formed by asexual reproduction The offspring are not identical to the parents
are referred to as clones. or to each other hence, it leads to variation in
n a population.
3. It is simple and fast process. It is an elaborate, complex and slow process.
4. It involves only mitosis. It involves meiosis.
5. It is always uniparental (single parent) It is usually biparental.
6. It does not play important role in evolution It plays important/vital role in evolution
process. process.
7. It is common among single-celled organisms, It is common in higher animals with complex
and in plants and animals with relatively organisation.
simple organisation.

TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

FISSION: In this ,the parent cell divides (cell division) into two or more individuals. E.g protists and
Monerans.
(A) Fission is 2 types:
(B) (i) Binary fission: The splitting of parental cell into two equal halves and each of which rapidly
grows into an adult is called binary fission. e.g., Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium.
(C) (ii) Multiple fission: The splitting of parental cell into numerous daughter cells, each of which
grows into an adult is called multiple fission. E.g., in plasmodium.

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Under unfavourable condition, Ameoba withdraws its pseudopodia and secretes a 3-layerd hard covering
(cyst) around itself. It is called encystation.
Under favourable conditions, encysted Ameoba undergoes multiple fission to give many minute amoeba or
pseudopodiospores. The cyst wall bursts out and spores are liberated to grow up into many ameobae. This
is called sporulation.
(B) Budding: The division is unequal. A bud appears and grows in the parent body, which remains attached
initially to the parent cell. After maturation, It is detached from parent body to form new individual.e.g.,
Sponge, Yeast, Hydra etc.

(C) Fragmentation:
In fragmentation parent body breaks into several fragments and each fragment develops into a mature clone
genetically and morphologically identical to its parent. E.g., Spirogyra

(D) Regenration:
The process by which some organisms replace or restore lost or amputated body parts.
This process is carried out by specialized cells called stem cells.
It takes place in organisms that have a very simple structure with very few specialized cells.
Plants can regenerate all body part from the precursor cells.
Hydra and planaria had been used as the model of regeneration since time immemorial.
(E) Sporulation
(i) Zoospores are asexual spores produced by certain algae and some fungi, capable of moving about by
means of
flagella. e.g., Chlamydomonas
(ii) Conidia are nonmotile asexual spores of higher fungi. E.g., Penicillium

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(iii) Gemmule is a tough-coated dormant cluster of embryonic cells produced for development in more
favourable conditions. e.g., Sponges

(F) Vegetative propagation:

Vegetative propagation is a form of asexual reproduction of a plant
In plants, the units of vegetative propagation such as runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb are all
capable of giving rise to new offspring. These structures are called vegetative propagules.
* ‘water hyacinth’ which is one of the most invasive weeds found growing wherever there is standing water.
It drains oxygen from the water, which leads to death of fishes.
* This plant was introduced in India because of its beautiful flowers and shape of leaves. Since it can
propagate vegetatively at a phenomenal rate and spread all over the water body in a short period of time, it is
very difficult to get rid off them.

* Vegetative propagation is of two types:

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(a) Natural Vegetative Propagation (b) Artificial Vegetative Propagation

(a) Natural Vegetative Propagation

New plants grow from parts of the parent plant.
Vegetative propagules are units of vegetative propagation. They include:
(1) Stems:
Runners are stems that grow horizontally above the ground. They have nodes where buds are
formed. These buds grow into a new plant.

(2) Roots
New plants will grow out of swollen, modified roots called tubers. Buds develop
at the base of the stem and then grow into new plants.

(3) Leaves
Leaves of some plants will grow into a new plant if they become detached from the parent plant. Other
plants grow small plants called plantlets on the edge of their leaves.

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(4) Bulbs
A bulb contains an underground stem reduced in size. Leaves are swollen with stored food. e.g.,
onion, daffodil, tulip. At the centre of the bulb is an apical bud that produce leaves and a flower . The
lateral buds will produce new shoots.

(b) Artificial Vegetative Reproduction

Horticulturists and farmers use artificial means to produce plants that are identical to the parent plant.
Some of the methods used are:
(1) Cuttings
Cuttings are part of the plant that is cut off of the parent plant. Shoots with leaves attached are usually used.
New roots and leaves will grow from the cutting. The shoot is cut at an angle. A growth promoter may be
used to help with the growth of the roots.

(2) Grafting
In grafting 2 plants are used to develop a new plant with combined traits from the 2 parent plants. In
grafting the scion is the above ground part of one plant. The scion is attached to the stock which is the rooted
part of the second plant.

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 (3) Layering
In layering a shoot of a parent plant is bent until it can be covered by soil. The tip of the shoot remains
above ground. New roots and eventually a new plant will grow. These plants can then be separated.

This ability is fully exploited by gardeners and farmers for commercial propagation of such plants.
* Asexual (vegetative) as well as sexual modes of reproduction are exhibited by the higher plants.
* On the other hand, only sexual mode of reproduction is present in most of the animals.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
* Sexual reproduction is characterised by the fusion (or fertilisation) of the male and female gametes,
either by the same individual or by different individuals of the opposite sex.
* These gametes fuse to form the zygote which develops to form the new organism. It is an elaborate,
complex and slow process as compared to asexual reproduction.
* Because of the fusion of male and female gametes, sexual reproduction results in offspring that are not
identical to the parents or amongst themselves.
Different phases of life in sexual reproducing animals:
(a) Juvenile Phase:
* All organisms have to reach a certain stage of growth maturity in their life, before they can reproduce
sexually.
* In animals, this period of growth is called the juvenile phase,
In plants it is known as vegetative phase. This phase is of variable durations in different organism.
(b) Reproduction Phase:

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* It is period of maturity, i.e. the period in which an organism is capable to reproduce sexually.
* In animals, the juvenile phase is followed by morphological and physiological changes prior to active
reproductive behaviour.
E.g., In several animals, including human being, the reproductive maturity is marked by a number of
changes that occur in their bodies.
* The reproductive phase is also of variable duration in different organisms.
* Plants – Some plants show flowering in particular season while other show in other season.
* The annual and biennial types, show clear cut vegetative, reproductive and senescent phases, but in the
perennial species it is very difficult to clearly define these phases.
* A few plants exhibit unusual flowering phenomenon; some of them such as bamboo species flower only
once in their life time, generally after 500 years, produce large number of fruits and die. Another plant,
Strobilanthus kunthiana (neelakuranji), flowers once in 12 years.
Animal Breeding :
Two types – seasonal breeder and continuous breeder
Seasonal breeders.
*The animals that reproduce at a particular period of the year, are called seasonal breeders.
e.g. ,frog, lizards, most birds, dear, etc.
Continuous Breeders:-
These animals continue to breed throughout their sexual maturity. E.g., honey bee queen, poultry, rabbit,
mice, cattle, etc.
* During reproductive phase, the females of exhibit cyclical changes in the activities of ovaries and
accessory ducts as well as hormones.
* In non-primate mammals like cows, sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tiger, etc., such cyclical changes during
reproduction are called oestrus cycle where as in primates (monkeys, apes, and humans) it is called
menstrual cycle.
S. No. Menstrual Cycle Oestrous Cycle
1. It occurs in primates (monkeys, It occurs in non-primates such as
apes and human beings) only. cows, dogs, etc.
2. This cycle consists of menstrual It consists of a short period of
phase, proliferative phase and oestrus or heat (e.g.,12-24 hours in
the secretory phase. cow) followed by anoestrous or
passive period.
3. Blood flows in the last few days Blood does not flow in this cycle.
of this cycle
4. The broken endometrium is The broken endometrium is
passed out during menstruation. reabsorbed.
5. Sex urge is not increased during Sex urge is increased during
menstruation oestrous period
6. Female does not permit Female permits copulation only
copulation during menstrual during oestrus period.
phase of the cycle.

(c) Senescence (Aging) Phase:

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* After reproduction maturity all organisms enter into a senescent phase.
* Senescence may be defined as the period structural and functional degeneration of the body by the
accumulation of the waste ultimately leads to the death.
* Thus senescence phase is between reproductive maturity and death of the organism. In both plants and
animals, hormones are responsible for the transitions between the three phases.
* Interaction between hormones and certain environmental factors regulate the reproductive processes and
the associated behavioural expressions of organisms.
* Events in sexual reproduction:
* Sexual reproduction is characterised by the fusion (or fertilisation) of the male and female gametes, the
formation of zygote and embryogenesis.
* The sequential events may be grouped into three distinct stages namely, the pre-fertilisation, fertilisation
and the post-fertilisation events.
(1) Pre-fertilisation Events:
The two main pre-fertilisation events are gametogenesis and gamete transfer.
(a) Gametogenesis:
Gametogenesis is the process of formation of male and female haploid gametes.
The formation of male gamete or male reproductive unit is called spermatogenesis.
The formation of female gamete or female reproductive unit is called oogenesis.
When male and female gametes are similar in appearance that it is not possible to differentiate them into
male and female gametes, they are called homogametes (isogametes). E.g., In some algae
When the male and female gametes are morphological distinct, they are called Heterogametes.
Among heterogametes, the male gamete is called the antherozoid or sperm and the female gamete is called
the egg or ovum.

A single organism bearing both male and female sex gametes are called homothallic or monoecious,
e.g., In plants coconut.
Organisms in which different individuals carry male or female gametes are called heterothallic or
dioecious. E.g., papaya.
Unisexual male flowers bearing stamens are called staminate flowers.
Unisexual female flowers bearing pistils are called pistillate flowers.
The animals which are either male or female are called unisexual. e.g. Human, monkey, Cockroach.
The animals bearing both sexes are called hermaphrodite e.g., earthworm, sponge, tapeworm and leech.
Cell division during gamete formation
Gametes are always haploid.
Haploid organisms produce gametes by mitotic division. Diploid organisms undergo meiosis of
specialised cells called meiocytes (gamete mother cell) to form gametes.
At the end of both divisions, only one set of chromosomes get incorporated into ach gametes.

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(b) Gamete transfer :
After gamete formation, male and female gametes must be physically brought together to facilitate
fusion (fertilisation).
In a majority of organisms, male gamete is motile and the female gamete is stationary.
In lower plants like some algae and fungi, both male and female gametes are motile.
In some plants like algae , bryophytes and pteridophytes, water acts as the medium for gamete
transfer.
* In angiosperms the pollen grains are transferred from anther of one flower to the stigma of another
flower. This is called pollination.
* In bisexual, self-pollinating plants, e.g., peas, transfer of pollen grains to the stigma is relatively easy as
anthers and stigma are located close to each other; pollen grains soon after they are shed, come in contact
with the stigma.
In cross pollinating plants (including dioecious plants), a specialised event called pollination facilitates
transfer of pollen grains to the stigma. Pollen grains germinate on the stigma and the pollen carrying the
male gametes reach the ovule and discharge male gametes near the egg.
* Several organisms belonging to monera, fungi, algae and bryophytes have haploid plant body, but in
organisms belonging to pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms and most of the animals including
human beings, the parental body is diploid.
(2) FERTILISATION (SYNGAMY):
* The process of combining the male gamete, or sperm, with the female gamete, or ovum. The product
of fertilization syngamy results in the formation of a diploid zygote.
In rotifers, honeybees, some lizards, birds(turkey) etc,. female gamete develops to new organisms without
fertilisation. This is called parthenogenesis.
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION-
S. No. External Fertilization Internal Fertilization
1. When fusion of gametes occurs outside When fusion of gametes occurs inside
the body of an organism, it is called the body of an organism, it is called
external fertilisation. internal fertilisation.
2. Large number of both male and female The number of sperm produced are very
gametes are released into the large and number of eggs produced are
surrounding medium (e.g., water) in less.
order to enhance chances of syngamy.
3. The offsprings are extremely vulnerable The offsprings are well protected
to predators, threatening their survival. comparatively.
4. Examples: Bony fishes, frogs and Examples: Birds, mammals, etc.
majority of algae.

(3) POST-FERTILIZATION EVENTS:

These include development of zygote and embryo after fertilisation.
(a) Zygote development:

* Formation of the diploid zygote is universal in all sexually reproducing organisms. Either inside the body
in case of internal fertilization or outside the body of an organism in case of external fertilization.

* Further development of zygote depends on the life cycle of the organism and environmental conditions.

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* In organisms belonging to fungi and algae, zygote develops a thick wall to desiccation and damage.
It undergoes a period of rest before germination.
In haplontic life cycle, the zygote undergoes reductional division (meiosis) to form a haploid organism.
In diplontic life cycle, the zygote undergoes mitotic division.
* Zygote is the vital link that ensures continuity of species between organisms of one generation and the
next.
(b) Embryogenesis:
* Embryogenesis is the process of development of embryo from the zygote.
* During embryogenesis, zygote undergoes
(i) cell division (mitotic) to increase cell number.
(ii) cell differentiation to form specialised tissues and organs..
* Animals are categorised into oviparous and viviparous based on whether the development of the zygote
takes place outside the body of the female parent or inside, i.e., whether they lay fertilised/unfertilised eggs
or give birth to young ones.
* In oviparous animals like reptiles and birds, the fertilised eggs covered by hard calcareous shell are laid
in a safe place in the environment; after a period of incubation young ones hatch out.
* In viviparous animals (majority of mammals including human beings), the zygote develops into a young
one inside the body of the female organism. After attaining a certain stage of growth, the young ones are
delivered out of the body of the female organism.
* Because of proper embryonic care and protection, the chances of survival of young ones are greater in
viviparous organisms.
* In flowering plants the zygote is formed inside the ovule.
* The zygote develops into the embryo.
* The ovules develop into the seed and ovary develops into the fruit. The outermost protective covering
of fruit is called pericarp or fruit wall.
* After fertilisation the sepals, petals and stamens of the flower wither and fall off. The pistil however,
remains attached to the plant.

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