CHAPTER 1 - REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS Date :11/03/2019

Life span : The period from birth to the natural death of an organism

Mouse 2- 3 years

Cow 12- 14 years

Dog 10-13 years

Horse 20-30 years

Elephant 60 years

Whale 200 years

Human 70 -80 years

Parrot 30 - 140 years

Banyan 2000 years

Reproduction is a biological process by which an organism is able to produce off springs of their own
kind.

Reproduction is essential for the existence and continuity of the species, variations and evolution.

Types of reproduction:
1. Asexual reproduction: In this type of reproduction, new individuals are produced without fusion of
gametes . Ex: Amoeba, Yeast, Hydra etc.,

2. Sexual reproduction: In this type of reproduction, new individuals are produced by fusion of male
and female gametes. Ex: Higher plants and animals

Features of asexual reproduction:

 A single individual (parent) is capable of producing offspring.

 It involves only mitosis and not meiosis.
 The off springs that are produced are identical to one another and are also exact copies of their
parent.
 Morphologically and genetically similar individuals that are formed in asexual reproduction are
called Clones

Different kinds of asexual reproduction

1Fission: It involves of formation of off springs by division of parent body.

 a)Binary fission: Some unicellular organisms [ Bacteria and Protozoans] like Amoeba paramecium,
splits into two equal halves by cell division and each halve develops into new organism.

b)Multiple fission: In Plasmodium, one cell divides into many daughter cells simultaneously.

c)Fragmentation: In multi-cellular organisms like spirogyra, one breaks up into smaller pieces after
maturation and each piece or fragment develops into new individuals.

d)Regeneration: If the individual is somehow cut or broken into any number of pieces and each piece
grows into new individuals. This process is called regeneration . It is carried out by specialized cells.
These cells proliferate and make large number of cells. From these cells differentiation occurs and
leads to development of new organisms .Ex: Hydra, Planaria, etc.

e)Budding: A bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site of the
body. These buds develops into tiny individuals and when fully matures, detaches from the parent
body and become new independent individuals. Ex: Hydra, Yeast

f)Vegetative propagation: It means the formation of new plants from vegetative propagules of the
plants like leaves, roots, or stem [ Except seed] under appropriate conditions.

In plants, the units of vegetative propagation such as runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb are all
capable of giving rise to new offspring . These structures are called vegetative propagules.

Vegetative propagation involves artificial and natural means by which plants reproduce.
 Runners/stolons: These are long side shoots that develop roots, eventually forming a new plant.
Example Strawberry, Spider plant.
 Leaf Notches : Some plants have young plants [Notches]on their leaves which will grow into new
plants if planted or when they fall off. Example : Bryophyllum
 Rhizomes: these are underground stems that can develop into new plants. They grow sideways in
the soil and have a shoot with leaves. Example: Ginger, Banana
 Offset : Example :Water Hyacinth is one of the most invasive weeds found growing wherever
there is standing water. It drains oxygen from the water, which leads to death of fishes.
 Tuber : Tiny buds that grow on underground structures . Each of these buds can form a new plant.
Example Potato
  Sucker : Example : Raspberry, Lilac
 Bulb : These are shortened underground storage structures. Bulbs produce smaller
buds develops into a smaller bulb that attaches to the base of the parent bulb. Examples: Onion,
Daffodils, Tulip
g) Zoospores: These are motile and microscopic asexual reproductive structures in algae and fungi.

Eg: Chlamydomonas[Algae}

h) Conidia: These are motile asexual reproductive structures in Pencillium

i) Gemmules: These are asexual reproductive structures in Sponges

j)Tissue culture[ Micro propagation] : Remove cells or tissue from the tip of a growing plant and
place in an artificial medium under aseptic conditions where they divide rapidly to form a mass of
cells called Callus . Transfer the callus in to another medium containing hormones for growth.
Differentiation of callus takes place to produce plantlets. Plantlets can be placed in soil to get
matured plants. Ex; ornamental plants can be grown by tissue culture method

Note : In honey bees, males or drones are produced by parthenogenesis from haploid eggs. Females
develop from fertilized eggs.

Sexual reproduction: It is the formation of new individual by the fusion of two gametes.
Features of sexual reproduction:

1. Involves formation of the male and female gametes, either by the same individual or by different
individuals of the opposite sex.

2. Fusion of male and female gametes takes place to form zygote and this process is called
fertilisation.

3. Offsprings are not identical to the parents.

Different phases in sexual reproduction:

1.JUVENILE PHASE/Vegetative phase: Period of growth and maturity of an organism before it can
reproduce sexually.

2.REPRODUCTIVE PHASE: Period in which organism is capable of reproducing sexually

This phase can be easily seen in higher plants when they start flowering.

Some plants flower seasonally & some throughout the year.

Bamboo species flower only once in their lifetime.

Strobilanthus kunthiana (neelakurinji) found in hilly areas of Kerala, Karnataka & Tamil Nadu, flower once
in 12 years the latest being in September 2018.

In animals sexual reproduction is usually seasonal. In placental mammals there is occurrence of cyclical
changes in the activities of ovaries & accessory ducts as well as hormones
Cyclical changes during reproduction

1.oestrus cycle: It is a cyclical change that occurs during reproduction in non primates Eg:
dogs, rats , cow , sheep, tiger etc

2.Menstrual cycle : It is a cyclical change that occurs during reproduction in primates

Eg: apes, humans, monkeys

Seasonal breeders: Some mammals exhibit cyclical changes of reproduction only during favourable
seasons of their reproductive phase

Continuous breeders: Many mammals exhibit cyclical changes of reproduction throughout their
reproductive phase. Example Humans

3.SENESCENT PHASE : It is the end of reproductive phase. Decrease in the rate of metabolism

Old age ultimately leads to death

Events in sexual reproduction

1 Pre-fertilisation 2 Fertilisation 3 Post-fertilisation events.

1. PRE-FERTILIZATION EVENTS:

a) GAMETOGENESIS means formation of gametes.

Meiocytes or reproductive cells undergo meiosis to produce gametes. Meiocytes are usually diploid in
nature. The gametes are usually haploid

Gametes called homogametes / isogametes when both have same appearance

When gametes are different, they are called heterogametes; male gamete is known as

antherozoid /sperm, female is called ovum

Bisexual condition in plants and fungi is called homothallic /monoecious whereas unisexual condition
in plants and fungi is called heterothallic / dioecious.

Unisexual animals: Human , cow , dog , cockroach

Bisexual or Hermaphrodites: Earthworm sponges tapeworm Leech

Monoecious plants : These plants bear both staminate and pistillate flowers. Example : cucurbits and
coconuts

Dioecious plants : These plants can bear either staminator pistillate flowers. Example : papaya and
date palm.

b) GAMETE TRANSFER
In most of the organisms., male gametes are motile & female gametes are stationary.

In fungi and algae , male & female gametes are motile.

In algae, bryophytes & pteridophytes , water is the medium for gamete transfer . A large number of the
male gametes are produced to compensate the loss of male gametes during transport.

Pollination is the method of gamete transfer in higher plants : pollen grains are carriers of male

gametes

FERTILISATION : SYNGAMY / FERTILIZATION: Means fusion of male and female gametes

Syngamy results in formation of a diploid zygote

In certain animals, female gamete develops into the adult organism without fertilization; such a

process is called parthenogenesis - seen in rotifers, whip tail lizards turkeys etc.

Types of fertilization : Fertilisation may be external or internal

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION : Syngamy occurs outside the body of the organism Eg: Fish Amphibians

INTERNAL FERTILIZATION: Syngamy occurs inside the body of the organism

Eg: Higher animals such as reptiles birds, mammals and in a majority of plants (bryophytes,

pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms),

3. POST FERTILIZATION: Events in sexual reproduction after the formation of zygote

Zygote – vital link that ensures continuity of species b/w organism of one generation & the next

In Algae & Fungi , zygote develops a thick wall that is resistant to dessication and damage. It undergoes a
period of rest before germination.

Development of zygote depends on

-the type of life cycle of the organisms.

-the environment it is exposed to.

Zygote develops into embryo

Embryogenesis refers to the process of development of embryo from the zygote.

During embryogenesis, zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation.

1. Increase in the number of cells in the developing embryo;

2. cell differentiation helps groups of cells to undergo certain modifications to form specialised
tissues and organs to form an organism.

Based on whether the development of zygote occurs inside or outside the body of the female parent,
animals are categorized into oviparous and viviparous.

OVIPAROUS: These animals lay fertilized eggs in the external medium . The eggs have a calcareous shell
to protect them from harsh environment. Eg: Fish, reptiles and birds

Viviparous: These animals give birth to young ones . Embryo protected inside the mother’s body.
Because of proper embryonic care and protection, the chances of survival of young ones is greater in
viviparous organisms. Ex: Human, cow, dogs, etc

In flowering plants the zygote formed inside the ovule; zygote develops into embryo after which the
ovule becomes the seed and ovary becomes the fruit.

Oviviviparous: They give birth to young ones without extending nutritional support . The embyo grows
at the expense of yolk. Ex: Electric ray, Earth boa, etc

Question Bank - HOTS REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

1) No two individuals, especially in mammals (except monozygotic twins) look alike. What distinguishes
them from the rest? 1

2) A plant was introduced in India because of its beautiful flowers & shape of leaves. It propagates
vegetatively at a phenomenal rate and spread all over the water bodies and has become a threat. Which
plant is being referred to? 1

3) A few plants exhibit unusual flowering phenomena which flowers once in their life time and die.
Suggest an evidence of the same from monocotyledon.1

4) Identify A and B Label (1) and (2) in the given figure 1

5) The Nilgiris belt form the large blue stretches in the hilly areas of Kerala, Karnataka, & Tamilnadu and
attracted a large number of tourists. What reason do you attribute to this phenomenal change of nature
once in 12 years? 1

6) Why estrous cycle is not seen in humans? 1

7) All papaya and date palm plants produce flowers yet only few papaya and date palm seen to produce
fruit. What could be the possible reason for the rest not producing them? 1

8) Often the number of male gametes produced in an organism is in large number as compared to
female. Why has nature taken up this developmental disparity?

10) In nature for both plants & animals, hormones are responsible for transitions between the three
phases of reproduction. Which 3 phases are being referred to here?1

12. (i) Though ginger is found under the soil. Yet it is not a root, but stem. Justify your answer with two
reasons.

(ii) What are the specialised cells which undergo meiosis in the diploid organisms, called as?

13) Why can't man be oviparous? Justify the statement. 2

14) (i) Name the process of development of embryo from the zygote. 2

(ii) What are the two changes which the zygote undergoes during this process?
15) Label the figures A and B and also mark X and Y.

16) Why dogs and cats have oestrus cycle but human beings have menstrual

cycle, though all are mammals? 2

17) In bisexual flowers, why is the transfer of pollen grains easier than in unisexual flowers? Name
the specialized event in unisexual flowers which helps in transfer of pollen.
18) Can we refer the off -springs formed by asexual reproduction, as a clone? If yes, why? 2

19) The posterior end of cockroach shows the following structures. Mention if it is a male or
female. Also label the part marked 'X'

20) Arrange the following events in proper sequence:- 2

(a) Embryogenesis

(b) Fertilization

(c) Gametogenesis

(d) Zygote formation.

What will happen if meiosis does not take place during gametogenesis?

Natural Forms Of Vegetative Propagation

Vegetative propagation involves artificial and natural means by which plants reproduce.
Natural means of vegetative propagation includes:
Runners/stolons: some plants produce long side shoots that develop roots, eventually forming a new plant. Example
Strawberry, Spider plant.

Leaves: some plants, such as the Leaf of Life, have young plants on their leaves which will grow into new plants if planted or
when they fall off.
Rhizomes: these are underground stems that can develop into new plants. They grow sideways in the soil and have a shoot with
leaves. Example: Ginger.

ANSWERS:1. REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

1) Monozygotic twins develop from a single zygote. In rest of the individuals,

the zygote develops directly into an individual.

2) Water hyacinth. It grows in abundance as result oxygen depletion occurs.

3) Bamboo.

4) A- Penicillium 1. Conidia

B-Sponge 2. Gemmules

5) Its shows mass flowering of Strobilanthus kunthaiana.

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Rajkumar Biology6) Man is an advanced animal, with more reproductive capacity.

7) Papaya and date are dioecious plants.

8) Male gametes are motile in nature and they are destroyed.

9) S- Seed, P-Protective pericarp.

10) a) Pre-fertilization b) Post-fertilization c) Embryogenesis

11) A-Eyes B-Germinating eye bud Type-Tuber

12) (i) It is a modified stem and has nodes, internodes and bud.

(ii) Cell division and cell differentiation.

13. Man is a placental animal having adaptation to give birth.

14. i)Embryogenesis ii)cell differention and organogenesis

15) Parts of fig-X-Archegoniopore

Y-Antheridiophore

a- Female thallus of marchantia

B-Male thallus of marchantia.

16) Dogs and cats are seasonal breeders having heat period during which

ovulation takes place but human females have this cycle every month.

17) Both the reproductive organs stamens and pistils are present in the same

flower close to each other but in unisexual flower they are present in two

different flowers. ii) Pollination

18) Yes, since all the organisms are exactly similar to the parents.

19) The figure indicates part of female cockroach, name of the part- ovary.

20) Gametogenesis, fertilization, zygote embryogenesis.

Gametes will be diploid.