CHAPTER – 8 HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

1. Define reproduction.
The production of new organisms from the existing organisms of the same species is called
reproduction.
2. Is reproduction required for survival?
No, unlike breathing and nutrition, reproduction is not a necessity to live.
3. Why is reproduction essential?
Reproduction is one of the important characteristic features of living organisms.
Reproduction is essential for the survival of species on the surface of earth. It ensures the continuity of
life on earth.
Reproduction is the process by which variations can happen in the population leading to evolution.
4. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
Reproducing organisms create new individuals like themselves, and this is possible only if the same
blueprint of the body design is created. Thus, basic event in reproduction is making copies of the DNA in
reproducing cells so that two similar individuals can be produced.
5. How do variations occur in a population?
The biochemical reactions inside the cell for DNA copying cannot be absolutely reliable. So, resulting
DNA copies can be similar but not identical. The process of DNA copying will have some variations,
resulting in individuals with similarities but not identical. This inbuilt tendency for variation during
reproduction is the basis for evolution.
6. Why is variation beneficial to the species and not necessarily to the individual?
If the niche suitable for a population drastically changes, the population can get wiped out. But, if there
are some variations in the population, which can help few organisms to survive, it prevents the species
from getting eliminated from earth, hence helping in the survival of a species. Thus variations are
beneficial to the species and not necessarily to an individual.
7. What are the types of reproduction?
The two types of reproduction are:
i. Asexual reproduction: it is the method of reproduction in which a new individual is produced by a
single parent and no special cells or gametes or sex cells are formed. Eg. Binary fission in
amoeba, regeneration in Planaria, fragmentation in spirogyra, etc.
ii. Sexual reproduction: it is a method of reproduction in which, a new organism is produced by two
parents, involving the formation and fusion of gametes or sex cells by these individuals.
E.g. Fishes, frogs, humans, flowering plants.

8. What are the different types of asexual reproduction? Give examples.

The different types of asexual reproduction are:
1. Fission a) Binary fission e g. Amoeba, paramecium, Leishmania
b) Multiple fission e.g. Plasmodium
2. Budding e.g. Yeast, Hydra
3. Spore formation e.g. Rhizopus
4. Regeneration e.g. Planaria
5. Fragmentation e.g. Spirogyra
6. Vegetative propagation a) Natural propagation i) leaf e.g. Bryophyllum
ii) stem e.g. potato tuber
iii) Root e.g. sweet potato
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 b) Artificial propagation i) cutting e.g. Rose
ii) layering e.g. guava
iii) grafting e g. Mango
Fission: this is a method of asexual reproduction in which an organism, on achieving optimum growth
divides into two or more individuals simultaneously and each of them grows into an adult. Fission can be
of two types:

i) Binary fission: the parent cell on achieving maximum growth, divides / splits into two new individuals.
The parent ceases to exist. Each parent gives rise to two daughter cells. Unicellular organisms such as
Amoeba, Paramoecium, Leishmania reproduce by binary fission. (explain binary fission in amoeba with
diagrams)

ii) Multiple fission: in this method of asexual reproduction, the nucleus of the parent cell divides
simultaneously into several nuclei, each of them gets surrounded by a bit of cytoplasm and plasma
membrane. This parent cell, with several daughter cells, remains dormant by developing a cyst wall
around itself during unfavorable conditions. When the conditions are favorable, the cyst wall ruptures to
release these daughter cells, which grow into new individuals. This method of reproduction is seen in
certain parasitic protozoans. E.g. Plasmodium. (malarial parasite)( explain multiple fission in
Plasmodium with diagrams)

Budding: in this method, a small part of the body of the organism grows a ‘bud’ which then detaches to
grow into a new individual. Eg. Hydra, yeast.
In Hydra, certain regenerative cells grow and develop into a ‘bud’ on the body of the parent hydra. This
bud grows gradually developing a mouth and tentacles. A tiny hydra is formed. The tiny hydra then
detaches itself from the parent body, drifts and fixes itself to a substratum, and becomes an independent
individual. Thus hydra reproduces asexually by budding.
(Figures to be drawn)

Spore formation: This method of asexual reproduction is seen in simple multicellular plants such as
Rhizopus, mucor, aspergillus etc. The parent plant produces hundreds of microscopic asexual
reproductive bodies called ‘spores. The spores are produced in balloon like spore case called
sporangium which is borne on the upright sporangiophores. The spores are released when the
sporangium ruptures. These spores are very light and microscopic. Each of these spores has a thick
wall which helps them to tide over adverse climatic conditions. Under favourable conditions these spores
germinate to give rise to new individual. (figure of Rhizopus with sporangia).

Regeneration: is a method of asexual reproduction in which an organism which is accidentally cut into
two or more parts can regenerate the lost parts of its body to form whole new individuals, complete in all
respects. Simple animals like hydra and planaria show regeneration.
The regeneration of an organism from its cut body part occurs by the process of growth and
development. The regenerative cells of the cut body part of the organism divide rapidly to form a ball of
cells which move to proper places inside the body and develop into the lost body parts. Thus, a
complete organism is regenerated. Regeneration is possible only in organisms which have relatively
simple body organization with only a few specialized cells. In complex multicellular organisms, as the
cells become more and more specialized, the ability to regenerate decreases.
Eg. Planaria and Hydra (figures given in notes)

Fragmentation: the breaking up of the body of a simple multicellular organism into two or more pieces
on maturing, each of which subsequently grows and develops into a new complete individual is called
fragmentation. It is an asexual method of reproduction seen in simple multicellular plants as well as
animals. E.g. Spirogyra.
Spirogyra is a green filamentous alga found in ponds, lakes and streams. Spirogyra filament simply
breaks into two or more fragments on maturation, and each fragment grows into a new spirogyra. Thus,
spirogyra reproduces by the asexual method of fragmentation.

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9. What is vegetative propagation?

Vegetative propagation: is an asexual method of reproduction seen only in plants. In vegetative

propagation, new plants are obtained from the parts of old plants such as stems, roots and leaves
without the help of any reproductive organs. Vegetative propagation usually involves the growth and
development of one or more buds present in dormant condition in old parts of plants into new plants.
Vegetative propagation is seen naturally in leaves, stem and roots.

i) Vegetative propagation by leaves: eg. Bryophyllum, begonia.

The leaves of the bryophyllum plant have special type of buds in their margins. These buds develop into
new plantlets when the leaf matures and as the leaf falls on the soil, these plantlets detach and grow into
new plants. Sometimes these plantlets can drop off from the leaf into the soil and grow independently.
Thus, leaves of bryophyllum can reproduce vegetatively.

ii) Vegetative propagation by stem: e.g. Money plant, potato.

A piece of stem of the money plant with one or two nodes when planted in soil can develop into a new
plant. Modified underground stems such as potato tubers can be vegetatively propagated by planting
the buds of the tuber. Potato tuber has a number of buds / eyes on it, which when planted along with a
portion of potato, can develop into new plants.

iii) Vegetative propagation by roots: eg. Sweet potato

We see vegetative propagation by roots in case of sweet potato. The stem of sweet potato develops
adventitious roots wherever the plant comes in contact with the soil and becomes swollen to form sweet
potato. Each node of the creeper develops adventitious roots and hence, when separated, each bunch
of these adventitious roots develops into a new plant.

10. What are the artificial methods of vegetative propagation?

The process of growing many plants from one plant by manmade methods is called artificial propagation
of plants. Artificial methods of vegetative propagation are: i) cutting ii) layering iii) grafting

i) Cutting: In this type of propagation, any part of the plant like the root, stem or leaf having some
buds is taken and buried partly in the moist soil. Certain plants like Rose plant, Chrysanthemum,
grapes arepropagated by means of cutting.

ii) Layering: In this method, one of the lower branches of the plant is pulled towards the ground and a
part of it is covered with moist soil, leaving the growing tip of the branch exposed above the ground. The
adventitious roots are produced in the branch of the stem covered by the soil. The plant is then detached
from the parent plant. Plants such as Hibiscus, Bougainvillea, Jasmine, Lemon, and Guava are
propagated by this method.

iii) Grafting: Grating is a method of vegetative propagation in which the cut stems of two plants, one
with roots and the other without roots are joined together in such a way that the two stems join and grow
as a single plant. The new plant will have the characteristics of both the plants. The portion of the plant
that is grafted on the other plant is called the scion and the plant on which grafting is performed is
called the stock. This method is applied to improve the variety of fruits like mango, apple, peas, citrus
and guava and flowering plants like roses.

11. What are the advantages of vegetative propagation?

Vegetative propagation is a cheaper, easier and rapid method of propagation in plants than growing
plants from their seeds.
i. The traits or characters of the parent plant are preserved.
ii. Better quality of plants can be maintained by this method.
iii Propagation of plants which do not produce viable seeds.
iv. Plants which produce seeds with long dormancy period can be propagated by vegetative methods.
v. Plants generated by vegetative means require less time to grow and have the advantage of growing
more uniformly and are genetically similar to the parent stock.

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12. What are the disadvantages of vegetative propagation?
i) Vegetative propagation induces overcrowding.
ii) There is no genetic variation, so there is less adaptability of the plant to the
environment.
iii) The plants lose vigor over several generations.
iv) The disease of the parent plant gets transferred to the offspring along with certain beneficial
characters.

13. What is Tissue culture?

i) It is a method of artificial propagation of plants from isolated plant cells that grow on an artificial /
synthetic medium.
ii) It is done as follows: Growing tissues of plants are separated and put in an artificial medium kept in
an aseptic condition.
iii) The plant tissue divides to form small group of cells or callus.
iv) The callus is then transferred to another nutritive medium with hormones for growth and
differentiation.
v) The plantlets produced are now transplanted to small pots or soil and protected in nurseries.
vii) The plants grow to form mature plants.
viii) This technique is also known as micropropagation – in vitro because the young plant is developed,
and it grows in an artificial environment.
xi) This technique is used to produce ornamental plants of commercial value such as orchids, carnation,
anthuriums, dahlia etc.

Diagrams:

Figure 8.1(a) Binary fission in Amoeba

Figure 8.1(b) Binary fission in Leishmania
Figure 8.2 Multiple fission in Plasmodium
Figure 8.3 Regeneration in Planaria
Figure 8.4 Budding in Hydra
Figure 8.5 Leaf of Bryophyllum with buds
Figure 8.6 Spore formation in Rhizopus

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS:

Phylum Angiospermae consists of flowering plants, and these plants produce both male and female
gametes for sexual reproduction.

The sexual reproduction in plants takes place in the following steps:

a) The reproductive structure of the angiosperms is located in the flower.

b) The male reproductive structure is the stamen, which produces the male gametes which are
present in the pollen grains of the plant.
c) The female reproductive structure is the carpel which produces the female gametes in ovules in
the plant.
d) The male gamete present in the pollen grain fertilizes the female gamete present in the ovule to
produce a zygote, which undergoes further divisions to form an embryo.
e) The fertilized ovules grow and become seeds.
f) The seeds give rise to new plants when they germinate.

Parts of a flower: The flowers are usually bisexual ie, both male and female reproductive structures are
present in the same flower. The flower is attached to the plant by the pedicel or the stalk.

The main parts of the flower are – sepals, petals, stamens, and carpel / pistil

Sepals are usually green leaf like parts forming the outermost whorl of the flower and it protects the
flower in the earlier stage of its development as bud.

Petals are the colorful parts of the flower, which forms the inner whorl of the sepals. They assist the
flower in the process of pollination by attracting insects to the flower. They also provide protection to the
reproductive structures of the flower.

Stamen and carpel form the reproductive parts of a flower.

Stamen / Androecium is the male reproductive organ of the plant and each flower has a number of
stamens in it. Each stamen is made up of a filament which is a thin stalk like structure and a bilobed
anther which at the tip of the filament. Each lobe of the anther has two pollen sacs, which contain
numerous pollen grains which are very light and yellow in color.

Carpel / Gynoecium is the female reproductive structure of the plant and it is present in the centre of
the flower. It consists of three parts- the stigma, style and ovary.

Stigma is the terminal, sticky part of the carpel, which facilitates the pollen grains to stick to the stigma
during pollination, when the pollen are released from the anthers

Style is the slender, elongated middle portion of the carpel which connects the stigma to the ovary.

Ovary is the swollen lower portion of the carpel, which contains the ovules and each ovule is an egg
cell/ female gamete. Carpel in a flower is usually surrounded by a no. of stamens.

Flowers can be of two types –

Unisexual flowers are those which contain either the stamens or the carpel, but not both. Eg.
Watermelon, papaya

Bisexual flowers are those which have both the stamens and carpel. Eg. Hibiscus, mustard.

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Pollination: is a process in which the pollen grains are transferred from the anther of the stamen to the
stigma of the carpel, by agents such as insects, birds, wind and water.

Pollination can be of two types: self pollination and cross pollination.

Self – pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the flower onto the stigma of the
same flower or another flower of the same plant.

Advantages of self pollination:

a) Self pollination in bisexual flowers ensures continuity of the species.

b) It helps to preserve the parental characters in the next generations as both the gametes are from
the same plant.
c) It is not necessary for the plant to produce brightly colored flowers, nectar or scent to facilitate
pollination.

Disadvantages of self pollination:

a) New varieties cannot be obtained from self pollination.

b) Genetic defects if any, gets passed on to several generations.
c) Repeated self pollination leads to loss of vigor and vitality in the species.

Cross – pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the flower to the stigma of another
flower of a different plant of the same kind. This is a common method of pollination in most of the
flowering plants. Cross pollination is facilitated by biotic agents like birds and insects, and abiotic agents
like wind and water.

Advantages of cross pollination:

a) It results in production of healthier off springs.

b) Seeds produced by cross pollination have better germinating ability.
c) More abundant and viable seeds are produced.
d) Variations in the species results in the evolution of better varieties.

Disadvantages of cross pollination:

a) Plants become dependant on external agents like birds, insects, wind and water for pollination.
b) Plants would have to produce large quantity of pollen grains to ensure pollination.

Zygote: the cell which is formed by the fusion of the male gamete with the female gamete is called the
zygote i.e. it is the fertilized egg / ovum.

Embryo: the zygote, after fertilization, undergoes further cell division and gets enclosed in the seed
once the cell division stops. This stage of development which is intermediary of the zygote stage and
that of a young plant is called an embryo.

Fertilization: is defined as the fusion of the male gamete with the female gamete to form a zygote
during sexual reproduction.

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Fertilization in plants:

a) Pollination is followed by the process of fertilization.

b) Once the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the ovary to fuse with the female
gamete
c) The pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain and makes its way through the style, towards the
ovary.
d) The male gamete undergoes division while passing through the pollen tube to form two nuclei.
e) It enters the ovary from the micropylar end, and one of the nuclei fuses with the female gamete
inside the ovule to form the zygote. The second nucleus moves upwards in the embryo sac and
fuses with the two polar nuclei, to form a fusion of three nuclei. These nuclei later divide and
develop into endosperm/ the nutritive material for the embryo to develop further.
f) Since there is fusion of gametes twice between two sets of nuclei - once with the female gamete
present in the ovule and the second fusion with the polar nuclei, the process is called double
fertilization.

Post fertilization changes in a flower:

a) After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
b) The ovule then develops a tough seed coat and gets converted into a seed.
c) The seed contains the future embryo which develops into a seedling when the seed is provided
with suitable conditions for germination.
d) The petals, style and stigma, shrivel and fall off after the fertilization process, as they are not
required.
e) The ovary develops and ripens to form a fruit.

1. What is the significance of reproduction?

a) Reproduction allows perpetuation of species

b) It increases the population of species
c) It plays an important role in evolution by transmitting favorable variations from one generation to
another generation.

2. What is DNA copying?

a) Reproduction at its most basic level involves making blueprints of body design of organisms.
b) DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins and different proteins lead
to different designs
c) A basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy. (Replication)
d) DNA copying is accompanied by cell division giving rise to two cells
e) DNA copying always involves some variation; hence the DNA copies generated are similar but
not identical.
f) This tendency of variation during reproduction leads to evolution.

3. What is the importance of variation in organisms?

a) Organisms fill well defined places or niches in the ecosystem by reproduction.

b) Organisms having the same body design occupy the same niche.
c) If a niche suitable for a population is drastically changed, the population may be wiped out
completely.
d) But if some variations are there in a few individuals of these populations, there could be chances
of survival, and the better adapted organisms will establish themselves and perpetuate.
e) Thus, variation is important for survival of species.

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4. How is specific chromosome number maintained over generations in sexual reproduction?

OR

Why does the amount of DNA not get doubled during sexual reproduction?

A special division takes place in the cells of reproductive organ such that the chromosome number is
halved. Diploid mother cell produces haploid gametes. Gametes contain only half the amount of DNA
(chromosome) as compared to the normal cell. When gametes fuse during fertilization, the full number of
chromosomes is re-established.

For Eg.: The human sperm has 23 chromosomes and egg has 23 chromosomes. During fertilization, the
zygote will have 23+23=46 chromosomes which is the normal number of chromosomes.

5. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?

a) In asexual reproduction, the off springs are almost identical to the parent and show very
littlevariation. This reduces the chance of survival and evolution of species.
b) Sexual reproduction promotes diversity among the offspring because variation from two parents
are coming together.
c) Offsprings of sexual reproduction have more chances of survival because of the variations.
d) Thus sexual reproduction promotes diversity of characters in the offsprings by providing genetic
variation. This genetic variation leads to the continuous evolution of various species to form
better and still better organisms leading to the origin of new species.

Diagrams:

FIG: 8.7 Longitudinal section of Flower

FIG: 8.8 Germination of pollen on stigma
FIG: 8.9 Germination

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REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

1. Define the term Puberty.

The age at which the sex hormones begin to be produced in the body of a boy or a girl, resulting in the
production of gametes is called puberty. It is then that they are said to have attained sexual maturity.

Boys attain puberty at the age of 13-15 yrs, and girls attain puberty by 10-12 yrs.

Both the sexes on reaching puberty display secondary sexual characters.

2. What are secondary sexual characters?

Certain changes are observed in the development of both boys and girls on attaining puberty –

Increased growth / size of the body.

Increased growth of hair on the body, localization and increased growth of hair in the arm pits and in the
pubic region / around the genitalia.

These changes are attributed to the release of sex hormones in the individuals on attaining puberty.
These changes are called secondary sexual characters.

3. Differentiate between the sperm and the ovum.

SPERM OVUM
1. It is the male gamete produced in a pair of testes It is the female gamete produced in a pair
in males of ovaries present in the females

2. Millions are produced Only one ovum produced from one of the
ovaries in a 28 day cycle of menstruation

3. Very tiny, with a head, neck and tail, practically Larger than sperm, has some food
with no food reserves in it. reserve.

4. Motile Non motile

5. Produced since attaining puberty till death Produced since attaining puberty till
menopause.

4. Describe the structure of the male reproductive system with the help of a neat labeled
diagram.

Male reproductive system consists of the following organs:

Testes: are a pair of oval shaped primary reproductive organs in man. The testes lie in a small sac like
structure, outside the abdominal cavity called Scrotum. The function of the testis is to produce the
sperms and the male sex hormone- testosterone.

Epididymis: is a highly convoluted structure firmly attached to the testis. The sperms produced in the
testes undergo maturation and become motile in the epididymis.

Vas deferens: is the duct leading from the epididymis to the seminal vesicle. This is also called the
spermduct. The mature sperms from the epididymis pass through this narrow tube and temporarily get
stored in the seminal vesicle.

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Urethra: is the common duct for the passage of both spermatic fluid and urine. Urethra carries sperms
from the seminal vesicle to an organ called the penis, which opens to the outside through the male
genital pore.

Penis: is the external genital organ. It is the copulatory structure which has thick muscular walls.

Seminal vesicles and Prostate glands are accessory glands, which provide secretions which nourish
the sperms and the fluid secreted helps in easier transport of sperms into the vagina of the female.

Sperms: are the male gametes, with a tiny head that carries the genetic material and a tail which helps
them move towards the ovum/ female gamete, for fertilization.

5. Why are the testes extra abdominal in position?

The abdominal cavity has a higher temperature that makes the sperms inviable. Hence, the testes have
descended into the scrotum which is extra abdominal in position, where the temperature is 3 degrees
less than the abdominal cavity, thus making the sperms viable.

6. Describe the structure of the female reproductive system with a neat labeled diagram.

The human female reproductive system consists of the following organs:

Ovaries: are pair of small oval shaped organs located in the abdominal cavity. Ovaries are the primary
female reproductive structures which perform the dual function of producing the female gamete / ovum
and the secretion of female sex hormones-oestrogen and progesterone.

Fallopian tube or oviduct: are pair of convoluted tubes that carry the ova released by the ovary to the
uterus. The fallopian tube has a funnel shaped opening called the infundibulum lined with cilia near the
ovary. These tubes from both sides open into a roughly triangular elastic bag-like structure called the
uterus.

Uterus: is the hollow pear shaped organ, highly distensible and muscular, in which the embryo
develops. The upper portion of the uterus is broader and the lower end is narrower called the cervix.

Vagina: the uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. Vagina is a tubular structure also called the
birth canal.

7. Describe the process of fertilization and the post fertilization events in the human female.

a) The male gamete is introduced into the female genital tract by the process of copulation.
b) The sperms are highly active and motile and move towards the fallopian tube through the cervix.
c) In the fallopian tube, one of the sperms fertilizes the ovum to form a zygote. This is called
fertilization.
d) The embryonic development starts immediately and the zygote moves further down into the
uterus.
e) The embryo, in the blastocyst stage, gets embedded in the thick inner endometrial lining of the
uterus, and this process is called implantation.
f) Then, a highly vascularised, disc shaped, special tissue develops between the uterine wall and
the foetus which is known as the placenta. This placenta is the bridge between the growing
embryo and the mother through which there is a supply of oxygen and nutrition from the mother
to the embryo and the collection of metabolic wastes from the embryo to the mother.
g) The time period for which the embryo is retained and nurtured inside the uterus of the mother till
birth is called the gestation period. It is about 9 months in case of a human female.
h) The act of giving birth to a fully developed foetus at the end of the gestation period is called
parturition.

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8. What happens to the ovum if fertilization does not happen? Or what is menstruation?

One ovum is released every 28 days from one of the ovaries for fertilization. The uterus prepares itself
for implantation by increasing the vascularization of the inner layer of the uterus called the endometrium.
This endometrial layer becomes thick and spongy with blood spaces to nourish the embryo if
implantation occurs.

If fertilization does not happen, the endometrial layer shrinks, rupturing the blood vessels, resulting in
disintegration, and outward flow of blood and mucous through the vagina, which is called menstruation.

9. What are sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s)?

The diseases which are spread by sexual contact from an infected person to a healthy person are called
sexually transmitted diseases (STD).

10. Name any three bacterial infections that are sexually transmitted.

Gonorrhoea: is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoea it is characterized by the inflammation

of the urinogenital tract. The patient feels burning sensation during urination. This bacteria infects the
ureter in case of men and cervix in case of women.

Syphilis: is caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. It causes lesions in the mucous membrane
of the urinogenital tract and ulcers on the genitalia. Lesions are formed at the point of contact and thus
spreads to healthy people also thro mucous and blood.

Trichomoniasis: is caused by protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. It is characterized by mucous

discharge from the vagina and burning sensation.

All these STD’s are transmitted by sexual contact. The newborn can contact the disease if the mother is
infected while giving birth to the child.

All these are curable diseases.

11. Name a viral STD.

Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome is a viral infection that is sexually transmitted.

12. Give the expansion of AIDS? What causes AIDS? What are the modes of transmission of
AIDS?

Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

AIDS is caused by Human Immuno deficiency Virus.

AIDS suppresses the body’s immune system making the person easily susceptible to any disease. The
incubation period of the virus is from a few months to a year; and an infected person finds it difficult even
to ward off a common cold.

Modes of transmission of AIDS are:

a) During sexual contact from an infected person.

b) By transfusion of blood from an infected person.
c) Through reuse of infected syringes.
d) Through reuse of shaving blades etc from an infected person.
e) Through the placenta to a newborn, if the mother is infected during childbirth.

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13. What are the methods by which unwanted pregnancies can be prevented?

There are three methods by which unwanted pregnancies can be prevented. They are

1) Barrier method:
a) Mechanical devices such as condoms used by males act as a device to prevent the entry
of sperms into the female genital tract. Condom can protect the individuals against sexually
transmitted diseases also.
b) The cervical cap or diaphragm which is used by the females blocks the opening of the
cervix for the entry of sperms thus preventing pregnancies.

c) IUCD, intra uterine contraceptive device, or copper –T as it is commonly called is inserted

by a medical professional into the uterus. This device, causes mild irritation resulting in
mucous secretions and thus prevents implantation of the embryo, thus preventing
pregnancies.

2) Chemical methods:
a) Contraceptive oral pill: is a synthetic oestrogen tablet, orally taken as a contraceptive. This
alters the delicate hormonal balance and prevents ovulation.
b) Spermicidal pill: is a gel like substance applied to the vaginal opening. This gel is
spermicidal and therefore kills sperms while entering the female genital tract.

3) Surgical methods:
a) In males, the vas deferens or the spermduct on both sides are ligated (cut and tied back) to
prevent the sperms from entering into the ejaculatory duct. This procedure is called
vasectomy. Though the sperms are produced, they are prevented from entering the
ejaculatory duct itself, thus preventing chances of pregnancies.
b) In females, the fallopian tube or oviduct in case of females is ligated and this prevents the
produced ovum from entering into the uterus. This procedure is called tubectomy. Since the
ovum is not available in the uterus, there are no chances of any pregnancies.

14. What is sex ratio?

The ratio of the number of females to the number of males in a population is called sex ratio. It
is preferred to be a 1:1 ratio of females to males in a healthy population. If this ratio is impaired,
there is a possibility of demographic imbalance to set into the population.

According to statistics, the sex ratio for the Indian population was 984 females: 1000 males in
2010. This is supposed to be the impact of selective female foeticide, which had plagued the
Indian society.

Female foeticide was stopped by legislation by making selective female foeticide and sex
determination during pre natal care punishable by law,

Diagrams:

V/S of Male reproductive system in human beings

V/S of female reproductive system in human beings

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