REPRODUCTION

The production of new organisms from the existing organisms of the same species is
known as reproduction.

Do Organisms produce exact copy of themselves

Chromosomes in nucleus of cell contain information for inheritance of features from

parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic acid) molecule.

The basic event in reproduction is creation of DNA Copies.

Cells use chemical reactions to built copies of their DNA. This creates 2 copies of
DNA in their reproducing cell and then they will be separated. DNA copying is accompanied
by creation of additional cellular apparatus. Effectively, cell divides to give rise to two cells.

The process of copying DNA will have some variations each time.As a result DNA
copies generated will be similar but not be identical to original. Sometimes there will be
drastic variations that leads to cell death. The change in DNA or variation in DNA lead to
basic criteria of evolution.

Importance of variation:

1. Inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction is basis of evolution.

2. Variation is also useful for survival of species overtime
3. Variations arising during process of reproduction can be inherited
4. Variations may lead to increased survival of individual.

Q1. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?

DNA- Deoxyribo nucleic acid molecule

The process of reproduction results in the production of offsprings, which are

exactly similar to the parents. It is due to the transmission of characteristics form parents to
offsprings . This is done by DNA copying which is accompanied by cell division that gives
rise to two cells. The exact blueprint of body design is inherited in the offsprings due to
DNA replication in parent cells and its copying to daughter cells. Therefore, DNA copying is
essential part of the process of reproduction.

Variations can occur during the process of DNA copying into offsprings. The
accumulation these variations are basis of evolution and such evolution are useful for the
survival of the species overtime.

Q2. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessary for the individual
?
 Variation is useful for the survival of the species even in adverse environmental
conditions. Populations of organisms fill in well –defined places or niche and live and
interact. If there is an alteration in ecological condition like global warming , then population
of organisms will get damaged and can be wiped out completely. The variants of organism
may have chances of survival. The surviving species reproduce and develop its own kind
of population which is suited for the niche.. So, variation is beneficial to the species and not
necessary to the individual . Eg. heat resistant bacteria will survive and grow further even
with global warming while other variants of bacteria will die.

Types of Reproduction: Asexual reproduction and Sexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction:
The production of a new organism from a single parent without the involvement of sex cells
or gametes is called asexual reproduction.

Types of Asexual Reproduction:

I. Fission ii. Budding iiii. Spore formation iv. Regeneration v. Vegetative
propagation

I. Fission: In this process the parent organism divides into two or more daughter cells and
each one then grows into an adult organism. Fission is two types

a.Binary Fission : In this mode of an asexual reproduction two new organisms are formed
from single unicellular organism. During binary division nuclear division takes place first
followed by the appearance of a constriction in the cell membrane , which gradually
increases inwards and divides the cytoplasm into two parts. Finally two daughter organisms
are formed. Fission mainly takes place in unicellular organisms like amoeba ,Paramecium.

Note: Karyokinesis: in which the nucleus first elongates , constricts and finally divides
into two neclei by mitosis

Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Draw the diagram of amoeba

However some unicellular organisms show more organization of their bodies such as
Leishmania (Leishmania is an protozoan causes the disease called Kala – azar) which have a
whip-like structure at one end of the cell. In such organism, binary fission occurs in a
definite orientation in relation to these structure.

Diagram of Leishmania

b. Multiple fission: In multiple fission the nucleus divides several times into many
daughter nuclei. The daughter nuclei arrange along the periphery of the parent cell, and a bit
of cytoplasm around each daughter nucleus develops an outer membrane. Finally the
multinucleated body divides into as many parts as the number of daughter nuclei and forms
several daughter individuals. Eg. Plasmodium
Diagram of Multiple fission in Plasmodium

IV. Regeneration or Fragmentation:

Regeneration is the ability of an organism to replace its lost body parts. Eg.Hydra, Planaria
(Flatworm) Spirogyra and Sponges. The mature Spirogyra (an alga) breaks into two or more
pieces and grow into new individuals. If Hydra gets cut into pieces even a fragment
measuring 1/6 mm is capable of regeneration into an entire individual.

II. Budding: In budding , a small part of the body of the parent organism grows out as a
“bud” which then detaches and becomes a new organism. Eg. Hydra and Yeast.
Budding in Hydra: A bulging on the body of the hydra appears as a result of repeated
mitotic division in the cells.This lateral bulge is called bud. The bud slowly enlarges and
develops into a new hydra on the body of the parent . Finally it separates from the parent
body and grows into a new hydra.

Budding in Yeast: During budding a small protuberance appears on the upper part of an
adult cell. This gradually grows in size .From this newly budded cell another bud appears at
the tip. This process continues 3-4 times ,resulting in a chain of yeast cells.

III. Spore formation: In spore formation , the parent plant produces hundreds of tiny spores
which can then produce new plants. Eg. Fungi like Rhizopus , Mucor and Penicillium and
Bacteria .

During spore formation, the thread like structures that develops on the bread mould
(Rhizopus) are called hyphae . Hyphae are not reproductive part of the fungi. The blob-on-
stick structures are involved in reproduction. The blobs are called sporangia, which contain
cells or spores that can eventually develop into new Rhizopus individuals.

Advantage of spore formation

The spores are covered by thick walls that protect the spores until they come into contact
with another surface and can began to grow.
Advantages of Artificial Vegetative Propagation:

1. Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds.
2. Vegetative propagation is also possible for plants such as Banana, Pineapple,
Grapes, Oranges, Rose and Jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
3. All plants produced by vegetative propagation are genetically similar enough to the
parent to have all its characteristics.
4. Plants grown by vegetative propagation needs much less attention in their early years
than the plants grown from seeds. (4th point is not from reader. So write first 3 points
if 4th point is asked then write this)

Disadvantages:
1. It induces overcrowding
2. No genetic variation so there is less adaptability to environment.
3. Diseases of parent plant get transferred to offsprings
4. New characteristics can neither be introduced nor undesirable character can be
eliminated

Reproduction in Bryophyllum

Buds produced in notches along leaf margin of Bryophyllum when falls on soil develops
into new plant.

Micro propagation in vitro or Tissue Culture:

In tissue culture, new plants are grown by removing tissue or separating cells from the
growing tip of a plant. The cells are then placed in an artificial medium where they divide
rapidly to form a small group of cells or callus. The callus is transferred to another medium
containing hormones for growth and differentiation. The plantlets are then placed in the soil
so that they can grow into mature plants. This technique is used to produce ornamental
plants like Orchids, Dahlia and carnation.

Advantage:
Using tissue culture, many plants can be grown from one parent in disease free conditions.

Parthenogenesis: This is a process of development of an organism from an unfertilized egg.

Sexual Reproduction:The production of new organism from two parents by making use of
their sex cells or gametes is called sexual reproduction. Organisms with male and female
sex organs in different individuals is called unisexual. Eg.Human, Frogs and
Reptiles.Organisms with both male and female sex organs are called Bisexual or
Hermaphrodite Eg. Tapeworm, Earthworm and Starfish. Gonads are the primary sex
organs. The cells involved in sexual reproduction are called gametes. Gonads produce
gametes by meiotic division. Tests is the male gonad that produce the sperms. Hence male
gamete is sperm .Ovary is the female gonad that produces eggs or ova. Female gamete is
ovum.. The process of fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete to form a zygote during
the sexual reproduction is called fertilization. The cell formed by the fusion of male gamete
and female gamete is called zygote (Fertilized egg).The stage of development between the
zygote and the newly formed baby is called embryo.

External Fertilization and Internal Fertilization.

Fertilization which occurs outside the female body is called external fertilization Eg. Fishes
and Amphibia Internal Fertilization is the Fertilization taking place inside the female body.
Eg. Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. For internal fertilization male gamete, sperm is
transported from the testis into the body of the female where fertilization takes place. The
transference occurs at the time of mating or Copulation.
Advantages of sexual Reproduction:
In sexual Reproduction offsprings , although similar to their parents they are not identical.
Offsprings will have genetic variation because they receive genes from both the parents.
Species can adapt more quickly to changes in its environment. Because best fit in the
environment will survive and reproduce.
In asexual reproduction all off springs are identical to their parent because they have exactly
same genes .Hence genetic variation is not possible. Which inhibit further evolution of the
organism.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants:

Reproductive part of Angiosperm (Flowering plants)

Majority of the plants are bisexual. Male and female reproductive parts are
present in same plant. Reproductive part of higher plants is flower.
Flower consists of green coloured sepal, colourful petals. Stamens and carpel (
Pistil) constitute reproductive parts. Which contain the germ-cells.

Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen grains that are
yellowish in colour. Each pollen grain produces two male gametes.

Carpel or Pistil is present in the centre of a flower and is the female

reproductive part.
It is made of three parts, the swollen ovary at the base, an elongated middle
style and a terminal stigma, which is sticky in nature. The ovary contain ovules
.Each ovule has an egg, female gamete.

Note: The flower may be unisexual when it contains either stamens or pistil
(Eg. Papaya, Watermelon , human, Frog,Cockroach, Reptiles etc)

Bisexual plants contains both stamens and pistil. Eg.Hibiscus, mustard, tape
worm,
earth worm, starfish

Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains form anther of a stamen to the stigma
of the carpel is called pollination. Agents which causes pollination are wind,
water

Pollination is of two types:

a. Self pollination: The transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same plant is called as
self pollination.

b.Cross Pollination:The transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to

the stigma of another flower of a different plant of the same species is cross
pollination. Agents like wind, water, animals, insects etc required for cross
pollination.

Fertilisation in Plants:
Pollination is followed by fertilization. The male germ-cell produced by pollen
grain fuses with the female gamete present in the ovule. This process of fusion
of the germ cells is called fertilization. Fertilization gives Zygote.

During the process of fertilization, pollen grains lands on a suitable stigma,

tube grows out of the pollen grain and travels through the style to reach the
ovary, where ovules are located. The pollen tube enters the ovule through a
small opening called micropyle. Inside the ovule , the pollen tube releases two
male gametes into the embryosac. The embryosac of the ovule contains the egg.
One male gamete fuses with the egg. This fusion of male and female gamete is
called syngamy. And its product is zygote. Other male gamete fuses with the
two polar nuclei and this process is called triple fusion. The product of triple
fusion is endosperm nucleus. The mechanism of two fusions namely syngamy
and triple fusion occurring in an embryosac is called double fertilization.

After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within
the ovule. The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into the
seed. The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit. The petals, sepals,
stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off. Seed contains the future
plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under appropriate conditions.
This process is known as germination

Reproduction in Human Beings:

Human Reproductive System:

The age at which the sex hormones or gametes begin to be produced and the
boy or girl become sexually mature is called puberty. Hence at the age of
puberty reproductive system of human becomes functional. Males attain
puberty at the age of 13 to 14 years while females attain it at the age of 10 to
12. Male hormone called testosterone is secreted from testis and female
hormone called estrogen is secreted from ovary. These sex hormones i. regulate
the process of reproduction by forming sperm and ovum ii.maintain the organs
iii. Develop secondary sex characters like facial, axial and pubic hair pitch of
the voice and development of mammary glands, structure and function of
accessory sex

Male Reproductive System:

Primary male reproductive organ is a pair of testis. The testis lies in small sac-
like muscular structure outside the abdominal cavity called scrotum. Scrotum
provides an optimal temperature is 1-3oC lower than the temperature of the
body. The function of testis is to produce sperms and the male hormones
testosterone. Tests produce sperms throughout the reproductive cycle of man.
From each of the testes arises a long tube called Vas deference .It unites with a
duct coming from the urinary bladder to form a common tube called urethra.
The urethra is enclosed within a thick muscular organ called penis, and opens
to the outside through a male genital pore. There is only one opening for the
urine and sperms.

Female Reproductive System:

In human females, paired ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity near the
kidney. The ovaries perform dual function of I. production of female gamete
(Ovum) and ii. Secretion of female hormones (estrogen and progesterone).Each
ovary is composed of ovarian follicles. At puberty these follicles undergo
maturation to produce ova. Near the posterior end of ovary, a funnel like
structure leads into a long convoluted tube called fallopian tube. The fallopian
tube from both sides open into a muscular structure, the uterus. Uterus opens
into the vagina. Vagina is a tubular structure and is also called birth canal
because child birth takes place through this canal after completion of
development inside the uterus. In females urinary opening (Urethra) and
Vaginal openings are separate.

Sexual Cycle in females:

The cycle of events taking place in the ovaries and uterus for every twenty
eight days and marked by the menstrual flow is called menstrual cycle.
Ovulation is the process of release of ovum from the respective ovary .The
commencement of menstruation at puberty is termed menarche. Menarche
marks the beginning of reproductive life of a woman. The age at which
menstruation stops and a women loses her ability to bear children is called
menopause. At about 50 years a woman attain menopause. Normal
reproductive life in human female is 12 to 50 years. The breakdown and
removal of the inner , thick and soft lining of the uterus along with its blood
vessels in the form of vaginal bleeding is called menstrual flow or
menstruation. It lasts for about 4-7 days.

Fertilization: The process of fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete to

form a zygote during the sexual reproduction is called fertilization. In human
female fertilization is internal. The male gamete (sperm) is introduced inside the
female genital tract by the process called copulation. Millions of mobile Sperms
released in the vagina move up through cervix and uterus. Finally in the
fallopian tube only one sperm fertilizes the ovum. As the result of fertilization
, zygote is formed. Embryonic development starts immediately in fallopian tube
and pregnancy begins. The embryo moves down to the uterus and gets attached
to its thickened inner wall. The close attachment of embryo with the uterus is
called implantation. After implantation , a special tissue develops between
uterine wall and the embryo called placenta. This is a disc which is embedded
in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue. On the
mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This provides a large
surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo.
Thus embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of this
special tissue called placenta. The developing embryo will also generate waste
substances which can be removed by transferring them into the mother’s blood
through the placenta. The development of the child inside the mother’s body
takes approximately nine months. The child is born as a result of rhythmic
contractions of the muscles in the uterus.

The development of fetus inside the uterus till birth is called gestation. On
completion of gestation , the birth of the fully developed fetus is termed as
parturition. The average duration of human pregnancy is about 280 days or 40
weeks and is calculated from the first day of last menstrual cycle. The new born
child after 40 weeks of gestation weighs about 3.5 Kg.

Menstruation: If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary
releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a
fertilised egg. Thus its lining becomes thick and spongy. This would be required for
nourishing the embryo if fertilisation had taken place. Now, however, this lining is not
needed any longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood
and mucous. This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. It
usually lasts for about two to eight days.

Population control: Population control can be done by following methods

i. Barrier ii. Chemical iii. Surgical Methods

Barrier Method: Physical devices such as condom, diaphragm and cervical caps are used.
They prevent the entry of sperm in the female genital tract during copulation.

Chemical methods: are use of drugs by females. There are two types of such drugs. Oral
pills and viginal pills. Oral pills are mainly hormones called Oral Contraceptives (OC). OC
inhibit the production of gametes by the action of hypothalamus, pituitary and the ovaries.

The use of Intrauterine Contraceptive Devices (IUCDs) is also very effective .

Eg. Copper –T and MLCu-375. IUCD can be placed safely inside the uterus and it will
prevent implantation of embryo in the uterus.
Surgical Methods: A small portion of vasdeferens in male and the fallopian tube in
female, is surgically removed or ligated. It is called vasectomy in males and tubectomy in
females

Reproductive Health and Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

The diseases which are spread from an infected person to a healthy person by sexual contact
is called sexually transmitted diseases(STD).Eg. Gonorrhea, Syphilis and Trichomoniasis.
The symptoms of these diseases are burning sensation at urination and urethral discharge.

Bacterial infections such as gonorrhoea and syphilis, and viral

infections such as warts and HIV-AIDS.
Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is also a sexually
transmitted disease that causes death. The causative agent for this disease is
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
WHO- World Health Organisation
NPP- National Population Policy
NHPI- National Health Policy of India
NGO- Non-Government Organisation.