CLASS: X (2021 - 22)

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY
CHAPTER 8: HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

Q.1 What is reproduction?

Ans: Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new
individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. ... There are
two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual. In asexual reproduction, an organism can
reproduce without the involvement of another organism.
Q.2.What is the basic event in reproduction?
Ans:Reproduction involves making copies of the blueprints of body design. The DNA in
the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins. If the information is
changed, different proteins will be made. Different proteins will eventually lead to altered
body designs.
Therefore, a basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use
chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA. This creates two copies of the DNA in a
reproducing cell, and they will need to be separated from each other. 

Q.3.What is the full form of DNA?What is its importance in reproduction?

Ans:The full form of DNA is Deoxyribonucleic acid.
Importance of DNA copying in reproduction:
 Reproduction involves producing the same kind of organism. The genetic
information is passed from the parent to the progeny through the DNA present in
each cell. This DNA which is copied, is the reason for producing the same kind of
offspring with the same traits. New traits are passed on and due to differences in
the copying, new variations in the organisms are developed which due to
differences may evolve into new species.
  As no bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable, therefore, the process of
copying the DNA will have some variations each time. As a result, the DNA
copies generated will be similar, but may not be identical to the original.
 When these variations are drastic the new DNA copy cannot work with the cellular
apparatus it inherits. Such a newborn cell simply dies.
Q.4. What is the importance of variations in populations?
Ans:When many variations arise in the DNA copied that do not lead to any drastic
outcome, this helps the surviving cells which are subtly different from each other to
survive better in the dynamic environment.
This inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction is the basis for evolution.
Example: If there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters, and if the
water temperature were to be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria would
die, but the few variants resistant to heat would survive and grow further. Variation is
thus useful for the survival of species over time.

Q.5. Explain how unicellular organisms are different from multicellular organisms
on the basis of method of reprioductioln.
Ans:Unicellular organisms reproduce by asexual means. Asexual mode of reproduction
involves single parent to produce their offspring. Different a sexual mode of reproduction
includes binary fission, multiple fission, fragmentation, budding etc.
Multicellular organisms can choose both asexual and sexual modes to reproduce their
offspring depending on the level of development. Sexual reproduction involves two
organisms, the male and female. Sexual reproduction involves the union of two opposite
sex cells by the process of fertilization to give rise to zygote (the single cell).
Q.6 EXPLAIN FOLLOWING MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE
ORGANISMS:
 Fission
 Fragmentation
 Regeneration
 Budding
 Spore Formation
 Vegetative Propagation(Plants)
Ans:1. Fission: The splitting of a unicellular organism into two or more than two
separate daughter cells is called fission.
Asexual reproduction by fission may be further divided into two types –
binary fission and multiple fission.

(a) Binary fission: this is the division of parent cell into two small, nearly equal,
identical daughter cells.

Binary Fission in unicellular organisms with definite body design:

Some unicellular organisms have definite organisation of their bodies. Example
Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), has a whip-like structure at one end of the cell. In
such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these
structures.

(b) Multiple fission: This is the division of parent cell into several small nearly
equal sized daughter individuals.
Fission types Binary fission Multiple fission
Number of daughter cells
Two Many
formed
Occurs both under
Under favourable
Occurrence favourable and
conditions
unfavourable conditions
Nucleus of the parent cell
Nucleus of parent cell
undergoes repeated
Nuclear division divides only once to form
divisions to form number of
two nuclei
daughter nuclei
Cytoplasm divides after Cytoplasm does not divide
Cytoplasmic division
nuclear division after each nuclear division
Amoeba, Paramecium,
Example Plasmodium
Leishmania

2.Fragmentation: It is a form of asexual reproduction wherein a parent organism breaks

into fragments, each capable of growing into a new organism. Ex. Spirogyra
3.Regeneration:
 The ability of an organism to regenerate its lost parts of the body which have been
removed, as by injury or autonomy is called regeneration.
 This process is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate and make
large numbers of cells. From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to
become various cell types and tissues.
 These changes take place in an organised sequence referred to as development.
 This process is not the only method of reproduction available to the organism as
the organism would not normally depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.
Example- Planaria.

4.Budding: It is a type of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from

an outgrowth or bud due to cell division at one particular site. These buds develop into
tiny individuals and, when fully mature, detach from the parent body and become new
independent individuals.
Budding is the most common method of asexual reproduction in Yeast, Hydra, Salpa.

5.Spore formation: Spore is a single or several cell reproductive structure that detaches
from the parent and gives rise directly or indirectly to a new individual.
Advantages of spore formation:
 Large numbers of sports are produced in one sporangium.
 They are very light in weight, and thus get carried away by air easily.
 They are covered with thick walls to protect themselves.
 Reproduction through spores is very fast as soon as they get favourableconditions.
Q.7.HOW POLLINATION IS DIFFERENT FROM FERTILIZATION?
Ans:The process of transfer of pollen from anther to stigma is called pollination,
which happens only in plants. Whereas fertilization occurs when a male sex cell
and female sex cell join or fuse together to form a zygote, it is seen in plants as
well as animals.
Q.8 .What is vegetative propagation? What are its advantages?
Ans:Vegetative propagation in plants is a method of asexual reproduction in which under
appropriate conditions the plant parts other than seeds are used as propagules (i.e the
structural unit that is employed in place of seed).
Advantages of vegetative propagation:
1) It is used as a method of propagation in those plants which have lost their capacity
to produce seeds or produce non- viable seeds example -banana, seedless grapes,
rose, pineapple etc.
2) It is a quick method of propagation.
3) The new plants produced by artificial vegetative propagation are genetically
exactly same to the parent plant.
4) Different partsof plant such as roots(Sweet potato), stems (Rose, Jasmine),leaves
(Bryophyllum) or buds may take part in vegetative propagation to produce new
plants.
5) Many plants can be grown from one plant, by vegetative propagation.
Disadvantages of vegetative propagation:
 The new plants look exactly like their parent plant and incorporate no variation.
 Seeds of desired quality may not be formed in asexually propagating plants.
Q.9. Explain tissue culture.
Plant Tissue Culture: This is an in-vitro culture of plant cells, tissues or organs which will
form a complete plant.
Plant tissue culture technique works on the basis of totipotency, an ability of a plant cell
to form the complete plant through dedifferentiation and redifferentiation.
Tissue culture, a method in which fragments of tissue from an animal or plant are transferred to an artificial
environment in which they can continue to survive and function. The cultured tissue may consist of a single cell, a
population of cells, or a whole or part of an organ.Ornamental plants are usually grown by this method.

Advantages of tissue culture:

1.
The new plantlets can be grown in a short amount of time.
2.
Only a small amount of initial plant tissue is required.
3.
The new plantlets and plants are more likely to be free of viruses and diseases.
4.
The process is not dependant on the seasons and can be done throughout the
year.
Q.10 What is sexual reproduction? What are its advantages over asexual reproduction?
Sexual reproduction:
Higher animals possess gonads the primary sex organs. The gonads produce haploid
gametes by reduction division.
The production of offspring by the fusion of two gametes(usually one from male parent
and the other from female parent) to form a diploid zygote which develops into the
mature organism is called as sexual reproduction.
Advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction:
1. More variations are produced.
 2. Off spring different from the parents.
3. Production of more offspring.
4. Can produce variation so new species are developed
Q.11. Differentiate between male and female gamete.
Ans:
Female gamete. Male gamete

This germ-cell is large. Male germ-cell is smaller.

It contains reserve food-stores.Does not contain reserve food

material.
Female germ-cell is usually non It is most likely to be motile.
motile.

Q.12.Draw a well labelled diagram of a bisexual flower

Ans:

Q.13 Explain structure of a flower.

Ans: Parts of a flower-
Calyx - it is the outermost whorl of floral leaves (sepals) generally green in colour and
protective in function. Occasionally they are brightly coloured.
Corolla - It is collection of petals, generally large showy and brightly coloured to attract
the insect pollinators.
Stamen or Androecium – It consists of anther and filament. Filament is a long stalk that
bears an anther at the top. Pollen grains made in the anther. Pollen grains contain the
male germ cells.
Pistil / Carpel or Gynoecium – It consists of a swollen ovary, long style, and a terminal
stigma. The stigma receives pollen grains during pollination and support their growth.
The style bears stigma in a suitable position to receive pollen and also provides passage
for the entry of pollen tube. The ovary is the swollen and hollow basal part that contains
ovules. Each ovule has an embryo sac that bears haploid egg(female gamete).
Q.14.Explain the changes that take place in a flower after fertilization.
Ans:Fertilisation and changes in the ovary:
After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it should reach the female germ-cells which
are in the ovary.
So, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and travels through the style to reach the ovary.
After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes division several times to form an embryo within
the ovule. 
 The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 Meanwhile, the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.
But in some flower part still persisting in the fruit example- brinjal, tomato.
Q.15 Draw a well labelled diagram of germination of pollen on stigma.

Ans:
Q .16 Explain the structure of a seed.
Ans:Seed-formation for the plant
 In angiosperms, the seed is the final product of sexual reproduction.
 It is often described as a fertilised ovule.
 Seeds are formed inside fruits.
A seed typically consists of:
 Seed coat(s),
 Cotyledon(s)
 Embryonal axis.
Seed coat is the outermost covering which provides protection to the enclosed embryo.
The cotyledons of the embryo are simple structures, generally thick and swollen due to
storage of food reserves (as in legumes). 
A typical dicotyledonous embryo, consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons. 
The portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which
terminates with the plumule or stem tip. The cylindrical portion below the level of
cotyledons is hypocotyl that terminates at its lower end in the radicle or root tip. The
root tip is covered with a root cap.
Q.17 What is germination?
Under favourable conditions such as adequate moisture, oxygen and suitable temperature,
the seed will germinate resulting in the formation of the seedling.
Q.18 Draw a dicot seed and label its parts.

Q.18 Explain the parts of female reproductive system.

Female reproductive system consists of following organs.
 1. Ovaries- each human female contains two ovaries located in the lower part of the
abdominal cavity near the kidney.
Each ovary is connected by a ligament to the uterus.
Ovaries perform dual function.
 production of female gametes (eggs or ova).
 secretion of female sex hormones.
Each ovary is composed of ovarian follicles at various stages of development.
Each follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many layers of follicle cells.
The production of ova starts at the age of puberty, usually one ovum is produced
every month during the fertile years of a woman. After menopause the ovaries
become small and loose follicle.

2. Fallopian tubes(oviducts) - Fallopian tube is 10 cm to 12 cm long muscular tube

which carries egg from the ovary to the uterus and also provides appropriate
environment for its fertilization.
The funnel shaped opening end of each fallopian tube lies near the posterior end of
each ovary.
The other end of the long-convoluted tubes opens into the uterus.
3. Uterus-This is a large inverted pear-shaped muscular structure that lies behind the
bladder.
If fertilization takes place the embryo gets attached to the wall of uterus and grows
there until birth.
Also, during the delivery, the contractions of the muscles of uterus help in childbirth.
4. Vagina- This is a muscular tube about 7 to 10 cm long whose walls contain elastic
tissue.
It is well adapted to receive the male penis during copulation.
Vagina along with cervix is also called birth canal as it allows the passage of the
baby at the time of childbirth.
Q.19 Explain male reproductive system of human .
Ans:It consists of the following organs.
 Testes
 Scrotum
 Vas deferens
 Urethra
 Accessory glands
 Penis

Testes- human male possess two testes.

They lie outside the abdominal cavity. Testes not produce male germ cells. They also
produce sex hormones required for sperm maturation and secondary sexual characters.
Scrotum- It is a pouch of skin that accommodates two testes.
The scrotum has 2oC to 3oC temperature less than that of the body which is most suitable
for the sperms to develop.
Vas deferens- This is a tube of about 40 cm length and carries sperms to the seminal
vesicles.
Urethra- It is about 20 cm long tube that arises from the urinary bladder to carry urine.
It runs through the penis and opens outside through male genital pore.
It carries urine from the bladder as well as sperms from the Vas deferens through the
penis.

Accessory glands –
Along the path of the vas deferens are present the male accessory glands-
paired seminal vesicles, a prostate and paired bulbourethral glands. Secretions of these
glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose, calcium and certain
enzymes. The secretions of bulbourethral glands also helps in the lubrication of the penis.
Penis- The penis is the male external genitalia. It is made up of special tissue that helps in
erection of the penis to facilitate insemination.
Q.20 What is placenta ? What are its functions?
Ans:Placenta and its functions:
 Placenta is a special tissue that develops between the uterine wall and embryo.
Placenta attaches the foetus to uterine wall. It possesses villi that increases surface
area for fixation and absorption

 Roles of placenta during pregnancy are as follows:

 It facilitates the passage of nutrient substances and oxygen to embryo from mother
through blood.
 Waste substances produced by foetus are removed through placenta into the mother's
blood.
Q.21.What happens when the Egg is not Fertilised?
If the egg is not fertilised, the uterus which had prepared itself by making its lining thick
and spongy is no longer required as fertilisation has not taken place. So, this lining is
shed through the vagina as blood and mucous.
 Q.22.What do you mean by contraception? What are the different methods of
contraception?
Contraception: It is the deliberate use of artificial methods or other techniques to
prevent pregnancy as a consequence of copulation.
Different methods of contraception:
The contraceptive methods can be broadly divided into the following types:
I. Natural method - ovulation happens usually between 12-16 days before the onset of
the next menstruation. By keeping records of the potentially fertile period and
avoiding intercourse during this time.
II. Barrier or Mechanical method- A thin rubber sheath (condom) is placed on the
erect penis before sexual intercourse which traps the sperms and prevents them to
enter the uterus. In females a thin rubber disc is placed in the vagina, which covers
the opening of the cervix stopping the entry of sperms in to the uterus.It possible to
prevent the transmission of diseases such as warts and HIV-AIDS during the sexual
act through the use of Condom etc.
III. Chemical method- Chemicals are harmful to the tissues but are able to kill the
sperms or immobilize them. Thus, avoids pregnancy.Others may act by changing the
hormonal balance of the body so that eggs are not released and fertilisation cannot
occur.These drugs commonly need to be taken orally as pills. However, since they
change hormonal balances, they can cause side-effects too.
IV. IUCD'S (Intra uterine contraceptive devices)- Small metal(copper) or plastic strip
bent into a loop or coil is inserted and retained in the uterus where it prevents the
implantation of fertilized ovum.Again, they can cause side effects due to irritation of
the uterus.
V. Surgical method-
 Vasectomy: A portion of man's sperm ducts are cut and ends sealed. So, no sperm is
released and cannot fertilize the ovum.
 Tubectomy: Woman's oviduct is tied, blocked or cut. Sperm cannot reach the ovum
and thus pregnancy is avoided.
Q.23.Explain the role of contraceptive methods in reproductive health of a person.
Reproductive health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproduction, i.e.,
physical, emotional, behavioural and social.
Need for various methods of contraception:
 The size of the human population is a cause for concern for many people. This is
because an expanding population makes it harder to improve everybody’s standard of
living.
 Pregnancy makes major demands on the body and the mind of the woman, and if she
is not ready for it, her health will be adversely affected, so child birth control is
needed.
 Certain contraceptive can prevent the transmission of diseases such as warts and
HIV-AIDS.
Q.24.What are STDs ?Give examples.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs): These are infections that are passed from one
person to another through sexual contact. The causes of STDs are bacteria, parasites, and
viruses. There are more than 20 types of STDs, including

 Gonorrhoea-Bacteria
 Syphilis -Bacteria
 HIV/AIDS-Virus
 Warts- Virus

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