How Do Organisms Reproduce?

Ch- 8
Topic- Introduction , Asexual
reproduction
Reproduction- It is defined as a biological process
by which organisms produce young ones
(offsprings) of their own kind and multiply in
number.
Q: How do organisms create copies of themselves?
Or
Q: What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
The information for inheritance of features from parents to
next generation is stored in the chromosomes in the form of
DNA molecules (Deoxyribonucleic acid). Reproduction
involves copying of DNA (Replication) which is passed from
one generation to next generation.
Q: How does reproduction help in providing stability to
the population of species?
The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is
very important for the individual organisms. It leads to
creation of new individuals with similar body features
that can survive in the particular ecosystem. Thus
maintaining the continuity of a population of species.
Q: How do organisms show variation?
Or
Q: List two reasons for the appearance of variations among the progeny
formed by sexual reproduction?
Variations may arise due to:
• Errors in DNA copying (during replication) leads to subtle differences.
DNA copies are thus similar but not identical.
• Mutation- changes in DNA sequences may be caused due to exposure to
certain chemicals or harmful radiations.
• Changes at the time of gamete formation due to crossing over (exchange
of genetic material between two homologous chromosomes leads to
recombination).[only in sexually reproducing organisms]
• At the time of fertilization, due to fusion of male and female gametes.
[only in sexually reproducing organisms]
Q: Why is variation beneficial to the species?
• In the case of drastic changes in the environmental
conditions, the variants will have better chance of
survival. Variation is thus useful for the survival of
species over time which may eventually lead to
evolution of a new species.
• For instance, increase in temperature due to global
warming may lead to wiping out of whole population of
bacteria living in temperate waters but the few variants
resistant to heat would survive and grow further.
 Types of Reproduction:
Sexual Reproduction
• Two parents are involved in the
reproductive process
• Fusion of male and female
gametes
• Meiosis occurs during sexual
reproduction
• Fertilization takes place
• It’s a slow process and offsprings
are different from parents
Asexual Reproduction
• Only one parent is involved
• Does not involve gamete
formation
• All divisions are mitotic
• Fertilization absent
• It’s a rapid process and offsprings
are similar to parents
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
I) FISSION : It occurs in unicellular organisms like amoeba and
paramecium. In this process , an organism splits or divides to form two
or more new organisms. It can be of two types:

• Binary Fission- The parent organism splits or divides into two halves
called daughter cells. Nuclear division occurs followed by cytoplasmic
division
Eg. Amoeba (fission in any plane)
Leishmania (a definite plane of division with respect to flagellum,
divides longitudinally)
Paramecium (divides transversally)
Binary Fission in Amoeba
Binary Fission in Leishmania
Multiple Fission – It is division of the parent cell into several small, nearly
equal sized daughter individuals. Nucleus divides several times and a little
cytoplasm surrounds each nuclei. Later cell membrane is formed around
each nuclei. Many such daughter cells are enclosed within a cyst
(protective covering).
Eg. Plasmodium
II) BUDDING- One or more outgrowths (buds) develop on the
body of an organism which then separate to form new
individuals.
Eg. Yeast (Unicellular), Hydra (Multicellular)

In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell

division at a specific site (regenerative cells). These buds
develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach
from the parent body and become new independent
individuals.
BUDDING in Hydra
In Yeast, a small bud, is formed on the parent cell. The nucleus of the
parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the bud.
The bud later separates from the parent cell and becomes
independent.
III) FRAGMENTATION: In this process, an individual breaks up into
several parts called fragments. And each fragment develops into a new
individual.
• Eg. Spirogyra
IV) REGENERATION:
Regeneration is the ability to give rise to new individual organisms from
the cut or broken body parts. It is carried out by specialised cells. These
cells proliferate and make large number of cells. These cells then undergo
differentiation giving rise to various cell types and tissues.
Eg. Hydra and Planaria
V) SPORE FORMATION: It is a method of developing new individuals by
forming reproductive structures called spores. Spores are minute
unicellular thick-walled asexual reproductive bodies that are stored in
special organs called sporangia. When spores mature, the sporangium
bursts open to release them. On coming in contact with a moist surface,
these spores germinate and grow into new individual.
Eg. Rhizopus
 Q: How is Fragmentation different from Regeneration?
FRAGMENTATION REGENERATION
• An organism is split into fragments and each • It is the process of regrowth generally occurred
fragment grows into complete individual due to some accident or damage. Organism allow
organism. partial (not related to reproduction eg.
• Eg. Spirogyra sp. Regeneration of tail in Lizard ) or complete (related
to reproduction eg. Planaria, Hydra) regrowth of
tissue.

• It occurs in multi cellular organisms with simple • It occurs in well differentiated multi cellular
body organization organisms with complex body organization

• No specialised cells are involved in fragmentation . • Specialised cells proliferate and form a mass of
cells. The cells from the mass differentiate to form
different cell types and tissues.

• 4. It is always a method of asexual reproduction. • It may or may not be a method of reproduction.

Q: How is the process of regeneration different from
reproduction?
Regeneration is not same as reproduction, since most
organisms would not normally depend on being cut up
to be able to reproduce.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION : It is a method of reproduction in which a
vegetative plant part like root, stem and leaves develop into new plants
under appropriate conditions.

Natural methods of propagation

• by roots: - In plants like sweet potato , carrot and dahlia, roots bearing
adventitious buds are planted in the soil to produce new plants.
• by stems: The buds on the surface of potato tuber can give rise to new
plant under suitable conditions. Rhizomes of ginger, turmeric and
banana and bulb of onion can produce new plant.
• by leaves: buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of
Bryophyllum and Begonia fall on the moist soil and develop into new
plants.
 DO IT YOURSELF

Q: Write in brief about the artificial methods of propagation -

cutting, layering and grafting.
Q: Write a short note on tissue culture as a method of artificial
propagation? What are its advantages?
• In this method, a small tissue is taken from the tip of a plant and is
allowed to grow in a medium containing all the essential nutrients
required for the proper growth of the plant. The tissue grows and
forms an undifferentiated mass of cells called callus. The callus is
transferred to another medium and chemically induced to form
plantlets, which are transferred into soil and raised to maturity.
Advantages of tissue culture-
• Many plants can be grown from a single parent.
• New plants produced are free from infections.
Q: State some advantages and disadvantages of the method of vegetative
propagation?
ØAdvantages of vegetative propagation:
• It makes possible the propagation of plants that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds such as banana, rose, jasmine etc.
• New plants produced are genetically similar to the parent plant and have all the
desirable characteristics of parents.
• It is a rapid, cheap and easy method. Plants raised by vegetative propagation can
bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.
• Only one parent is required for reproduction.
ØDisadvantages of vegetative propagation
• Due to lack of genetic variation the plants may gradually lose their vigour.
• Plants are more prone to diseases that are specific to a certain species which can
cause destruction of the entire crop.