1.

Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

It requires the fusion of the male and female It does not requires the fusion of the male
gamete. female gamete

It involves two (usually) different individuals. It involves only one individual.

It involves germ cells of the body It involves somatic cells of the body

Offsprings produced in sexual reproduction are Offsprings produced in asexual reproduct

different from their parents. Hence, show exactly similar to their parent. Hence, call
variation. clones.

They are evolutionary advantageous They are not evolutionary advantageous

Meiosis and mitosis division both take place. Only mitosis division takes place.

It is a slow process. It is a fast process.

Found in only lower invertebrates and low

Found in higher plants and animals.
chordates.

2. What are the various types of asexual reproduction?

(definition, eg, and diagram)

What is Asexual Reproduction?

Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is produced by a single
parent. The new individuals produced are genetically and physically identical to each other, i.e.,
they are the clones of their parent.
Asexual reproduction is observed in both multicellular and unicellular organisms. This process
does not involve any kind of gamete fusion and there won’t be any change in the number of
chromosomes either. It will inherit the same genes as the parent, except for some cases where
there is a chance of rare mutation to occur.
Also Read: Reproduction

Characteristics of Asexual Reproduction

Following are the important features of asexual reproduction:

1. Single parent involved.

2. No fertilization or gamete formation takes place.
3. This process of reproduction occurs in a very short time.
4. The organisms multiply and grow rapidly.
5. The offspring is genetically similar.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

There are different types of asexual reproduction:

• Binary Fission
• Budding
• Fragmentation
• Vegetative Propagation
• Sporogenesis

Binary Fission
The term “fission” means “to divide”. During binary fission, the parent cell divides into two cells.
The cell division patterns vary in different organisms, i.e., some are directional while others are
non-directional. Amoeba and euglena exhibit binary fission.
It is one of the simplest and uncomplicated methods of asexual reproduction. The parent cell
divides into two, each daughter cell carrying a nucleus of its own that is genetically identical to
the parent. The cytoplasm also divides leading to two equal-sized daughter cells. The process
repeats itself and the daughter cells grow and further divide.

Fragmentation
Fragmentation is another mode of asexual reproduction exhibited by organisms such as
spirogyra, planaria etc. The parent body divides into several fragments and each fragment
develops into a new organism.

Also Read: Fragmentation

Regeneration
Regeneration is the power of growing a new organism from the lost body part. For eg., when a
lizard loses its tail, a new tail grows. This is because the specialized cells present in the
organism can differentiate and grow into a new individual. Organisms like hydra and planaria
exhibit regeneration.

Budding
Budding is the process of producing an individual through the buds that develop on the parent
body. Hydra is an organism that reproduces by budding. The bud derives nutrition and shelter
from the parent organism and detaches once it is fully grown.

Vegetative Propagation
Asexual reproduction in plants occurs through their vegetative parts such as leaves, roots, stem,
and buds. This is called vegetative propagation. For example, potato tubers, runners/stolon,
onion bulbs, etc., all reproduce through vegetative propagation.

Spore Formation
Spore formation is another means of asexual reproduction. During unfavourable conditions, the
organism develops sac-like structures called sporangium that contain spores. When the
conditions are favourable, the sporangium burst opens and spores are released that germinate
to give rise to new organisms.
In asexual reproduction, a single cell is divided to produce offspring. The simple cell-by-cell
division is not possible in multicellular organisms. Most of the multicellular organisms have a
complex body design. They have a higher level of organization like tissues, organs and organ
system. Thus, they need a special mode for reproduction

Asexual Reproduction Examples

Following are the examples of asexual reproduction:

• Bacterium undergoes binary fission in which the cell divides into two along with the
nucleus.
• Blackworms or mudworms reproduce through fragmentation.
• Hydras reproduce through budding.
• Organisms such as copperheads undergo parthenogenesis.
• Sugarcane can be grown through vegetative propagation.

3. What are the benefits of asexual reproduction?

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

Following are the advantages of asexual reproduction:

• Mates not required.

• The process of reproduction is rapid.
• An enormous number of organisms can be produced in very less time.
• Positive genetic influences pass on to successive generations.
• It occurs in various environments.
 4. What do you understand by tissue culture?
• Tissue culture is a technique in which fragments of plants are cultured and grown in a
laboratory. Many times the organs are also used for tissue culture. The media used for
the growth of the culture is broth and agar.
• This technique is also known as micropropagation. It has proved beneficial for the
production of disease-free plants and increase plant yield in developing countries. It only
requires a sterile workplace, greenhouse, trained manpower, and a nursery.
• Oil palm, banana, eggplant, pineapple, rubber tree, tomato, sweet potato have been
produced by tissue culture in the developing countries

5.draw the parts of a flower

6 name the various parts of the flower.

Most flowers have four main parts: sepals, petals, stamens, and
carpels. The stamens are the male part whereas the carpels are the
female part of the flower. Most flowers are hermaphrodite where they
contain both male and female parts. Others may contain one of the
two parts and may be male or female.

• Peduncle: This is the stalk of the flower.

• Receptacle: It is that part of the flower to which the stalk is
• attached to. It is small and found at the centre of the base of
the flower.
• Sepals: These are the small, leaf-like parts growing at the
base of the petals. They form the outermost whorl of the
flower. Collectively, sepals are known as the calyx. The main
function of the calyx and its sepals is to protect the flower
before it blossoms(in the bud stage).
• Petals: This layer lies just above the sepal layer. They are
often bright in colour as their main function is to attract
pollinators such as insects, butterflies etc to the flower. The
petals are collectively known as the corolla.
 • Stamens: These are the male parts of a flower. Many
stamens are collectively known as the androecium. They
are structurally divided into two parts:
o Filament: the part that is long and slender and
attached the anther to the flower.
o Anthers: It is the head of the stamen and is
responsible for producing the pollen which is
transferred to the pistil or female parts of the same
or another flower to bring about fertilization.

(Source: Wikipedia)

• Pistil: This forms the female parts of a flower. A collection of

pistils is called the gynoecium.
Learn more about Inflorescence here.

Pistil consists of four parts

(Source: Britannica)

a. Style -is a long slender stalk that holds the stigma. Once the
pollen reaches the stigma, the style starts to become hollow
and forms a tube called the pollen tube which takes the
pollen to the ovaries to enable fertilization.
b. Stigma– This is found at the tip of the style. It forms the
head of the pistil. The stigma contains a sticky substance
whose job is to catch pollen grains from different pollinators
or those dispersed through the wind. They are responsible
to begin the process of fertilization.
c. Ovary – They form the base of the pistil. The ovary holds the
ovules.
d. Ovules– These are the egg cells of a flower. They are
contained in the ovary. In the event of a favorable
pollination where a compatible pollen reaches the stigma
and eventually reaches the ovary to fuse with the ovules,
this fertilized product forms the fruit and the ovules become
the seeds of the fruit

6. Describe the female and male reproductive organs of the flower.

1) The male reproductive part in a plant is called stamen.

• It consists of anther and filament.

• The anther is a lobed structure which produces pollen grains.
• The filament is a slender stalk-like structure.
2) The female reproductive part in a plant is called the pistil.
• It consists of three parts- stigma, style and ovary.
• The sticky part at the top called a stigma.
• A thin tube passing down is called a style.
• A swollen sac-like structure at the bottom is called an ovary.
• The pollen grains are transferred onto the stigma which then travels down
the style into the ovary, where it meets with the ovules and fertilization
takes place.

8. Diagram for fertilization in flowers

9. what is pollination? what are the two types of pollination?

Pollination: Is defined as the deposition of pollen grains on the stigma of a flower

from anthers belonging to the same flower, same plant or a different plant.
Pollination is of two types
Self pollination - Stigma receiving pollen grains from the same flower
Cross pollination - Stigma receiving pollen grains from a flower on the same
plant or a different plant
Wind and insects are two agents of pollination, called as Anemoplily and
Entomophily respectively
Example of wind pollination - Grasses, Gymnosperms etc
Example of insect pollination - Rose, Euphorbia sps etc
Pollination and fertilization - Suitable pollination leads to compatible pollen
grains being deposited on the stigma, leading to pollen tube development and
fertilization.

10. How does a human foetus derive nutrition?

Placenta and other blood vessels of the wall in uterus are the source of nutrition
in Human Foetus.

11. Describe the menstrual cycle.?

The menstrual cycle is the monthly series of changes a woman's body goes through
in preparation for the possibility of pregnancy. Each month, one of the ovaries
releases an egg — a process called ovulation. At the same time, hormonal changes
prepare the uterus for pregnancy. If ovulation takes place and the egg isn't fertilized,
the lining of the uterus sheds through the vagina. This is a menstrual period.
12. What are the male and the female gonads in the human beings? Mention their
functions.

Gonads are a part of the endocrine system, and gonads’ meaning can be
explained as male and female reproductive organs. Ovaries are the female
gonad while testes are the male gonad, and they are responsible for
producing sex hormones.

Such hormones are essential for the development and growth of both
primary and secondary reproductive organs. Also, they are steroid
hormones which pass through target cells’ membranes and aid expansion
of genes inside cells.

It is noteworthy that gonadotropins stimulate gonads to generate sex

hormones. Furthermore, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH) are released by the pituitary.

Function of Gonads
These Following Highlight Gonads Functions in Brief –
 • Secrete sex hormones.

• Produce gametes.

• Facilitates cell division, especially meiosis.

• Indirectly responsible for controlling the maturation of reproductive

organs.

• Responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics in

male and female.

With that being said, let’s check out the female and male gonads below!

Male Gonad Hormones

Androgens, also known as the ‘male hormone’ is responsible for the
maturation of the male reproductive system.

The Primary Male Gonads Hormones are –

i.Testosterone: These hormones are essential for the growth of bone,

muscle and body hair and are produced by testes. It is also responsible for
the growth of the penis, deepening voice and appearance of facial hair.

ii.Inhibin: Essentially, inhibin obstructs the release of follicle-stimulating

hormone or FSH. It also regulates the development and regulation of
sperm cells.

iii.Androstenedione: They are forerunners of oestrogen and testosterone

and promote and regulate their production within the body.

Female Gonad Hormones

Androgens are also present in females and are produced in their ovaries,
fat cells and adrenal glands. They are responsible for stimulating hair
growth in the underarms and pubic area in females.

These are the Primary Female Gonads –

i.Oestrogens: They aid in the development of the female reproductive
system and facilitate reproduction. For instance, oestrogens promote the
growth of a uterus, maturation of vagina, widening of breasts and pelvis.

ii.Progesterone: They help to prepare a uterus for conception and are also
responsible for regulating it during the menstrual cycle. Progesterone also
plays a key role in milk production during pregnancy and even for
stimulating gland.

Notably, both over and underproduction of gonadal hormones is often

responsible for several disorders in males and females. Typically, factors
like long-term illness, inherited disease, poor lifestyle choices, etc. are
responsible for hypo or hyperproduction of gonadal hormones.

13. Differentiate between menarche and menopause.

Menarche Menopause

Menarche is the beginning of the Menopause is the ending phase of the menstrual
menstrual cycle in females. females.

Beginning of menarche is approximately Generally, menopause may occur between the age
between the age group of 11-16 years. of 45 - 50 years.

With the increasing age and significant hormonal c

During the menarche, there is an increase
during the menopausal time, the bone mass starts
in the bone mass.
deteriorating. (significant reduction in bone mass)

It signifies the beginning of the

It signifies the end of the reproductive cycle of the
reproductive cycle of females.

Estrogen level starts decreasing slowly during men

Estrogen level increases during
and then further declines ( this is also the reason f
menarche.
low bone density in the old age of females)

Acne, irritability, mood swings, are the Weight gain, lack of sleep, skin dryness, anxiety, lo
general signs of menarche(onset of the density, mood swings and hair loss are the genera
menstrual cycle). seen during menopause.

This is the onset of reproductive ability of

This is the end of reproductive maturity (the fema
a woman (the female is completely able
conceive further).
now to conceive.

14. Mention the methods used for regulation of childbirth.

15. Name a plant that has lost the capacity to produce seed. How can it reproduce? [CBSE
2013]

• Plants that have lost their capacity to produce seeds reproduce by the method
of Vegetative Propagation.
• It is considered to be an asexual method of plant propagation
• Plants like banana, jasmine and rose that have lost their capacity to produce
seeds can be easily propagated by vegetative propagation.
• Fission is the splitting of a cell into two or more cells.
Fission can be of two types, namely, binary fission and multiple fission.
• Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new individual develops
from some generative anatomical point of the parent organism.

16. What is reproduction? [CBSE 2012, 2016]

Reproduction means to reproduce. It is a biological process by which an organism reproduces an

offspring who is biologically similar to the organism. Reproduction enables and ensures the
continuity of species, generation after generation. It is the main feature of life on earth.

17.Mention two modes of reproduction. [CBSE 2013]

Types of Reproduction
There are basically two types of reproduction:

1. Asexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
“Asexual reproduction refers to the type of reproduction in which only a single
organism gives rise to a new individual.”

Asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion of gametes, and

therefore, the offsprings produced are genetically identical to the parent.
The organisms produced by asexual reproduction are less diverse in
nature. This type of reproduction is practised widely by unicellular
organisms.
Asexual reproduction is further divided into:
 1. Binary Fission: In this, the cell splits into two each cell carrying a copy
of the DNA from the parent cell. For eg., amoeba.
2. Budding: In this, a small bud-like outgrowth gives rise to a new
individual. The outgrowth remains attached to the organism until it is
fully grown. It detaches itself as lives as an individual organism. For
eg., hydra
3. Fragmentation: In this, the parent organism splits into several parts
and each part grows into a new individual. For eg., Planaria
4. Sporogenesis: In this type of reproduction, a new organism grows
from the spores. These can be created without fertilization and can
spread through wind and animals.

Sexual Reproduction
“Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves the production of
an offspring by the fusion of male and female gametes.”

In sexual reproduction, male and female gametes are formed to produce an

offspring. These gametes are either formed by the same individual or by
different individuals of the opposite sex.
This process is usually slow and complex compared to asexual
reproduction. The organisms so produced are genetically diverse. Thus,
they can evolve along with the changing climatic conditions. Humans and
many multicellular organisms exhibit a sexual mode of reproduction.

Reproduction in Plants
Plants reproduce by sexual and asexual means. Vegetative reproduction is
the main mode of plant reproduction. Roots such as a corm, stem tuber,
rhizomes and stolon undergo vegetative propagation.

Sexual reproduction in plants takes place through pollination in which the

pollen grains from the anther of a male flower transfer to the stigma of the
female flower.

A few plants produce seeds without fertilization and the process is called
apomixis. Here, the ovule or the ovary gives rise to new seeds.

18. Give one example for each of the following.

(а) Plants in which vegetative propagation occurs by grafting
(b) Plants in which vegetative propagation occurs by leaves [CBSE 2012]

19. Name any two consequences of unsafe sex. [CBSE 2012]

20. Name the hormone, the secretion of which is responsible for dramatic changes in
appearance in girls when they approach 10-12 years of age. [CBSE 2008]

Oestrogen is the hormone responsible for the dramatic differences in the

appearance of girls when they near 10 – 12 years of age.

21. Mention the modes of reproduction used by

(a) Amoeba
(b) Planaria [CBSE 2009]

Mode of reproduction used by a Amoeba is Binary fission. b Planaria is Regeneration.

22. Explain why fertilisation is possible only if copulation takes place during the middle of
menstrual cycle? [CBSE 2012]

It is during the middle of the menstrual cycle that ovulation takes place in
the female. During ovulation, the ovum is released from the ovary and then
remains alive for a day or two. If mating occurs during this time, the sperm
has a chance to fuse with the ovum, resulting in zygote formation. During
other times, since ovum is not released, there is no chance for fertilisation
to occur.

23. Describe sexually transmitted diseases and mention the ways to prevent them.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Diseases which spread from one person to

another through sexual act are called sexually transmitted diseases. he organisms
that cause sexually transmitted diseases may pass from person to person in
blood, semen, or vaginal and other bodily fluids.
Examples: HIV, Gonorrhoea, Herpes. etc.
Ways to prevents STD:

• Use of condoms or other physical barriers.

• Avoiding sexual contact with unknown partners.
 • Avoid sharing towels or underclothing.
• Get a vaccination for hepatitis B. This is a series of three shots.

24. describe the process of fertilisation in human.

Process of fertilization
• The sperms are released from the male reproductive organ called the penis.
• The sperm enters the female body through one of the parts of her reproductive organ
called the vagina.
• Then the sperm travels through the fallopian tubes and meets the egg produced by the
female organs.
• The process of fertilization takes place in fallopian tubes.
• The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum.
• During fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse to form a single nucleus.
This results in the formation of a fertilized egg or zygote.
• The zygote is the beginning of a new individual.
• Fertilization results in the formation of a zygote which begins to develop into an embryo.

25. What is placenta? Mention its role during pregnancy. [NCERT Exemplar, CBSE 2017

The placenta is defined as the organ that is found in mammals during the development of the
foetus. It is made of the cells that are derived from the mother and foetus.
The following are the roles played by the placenta during pregnancy:

• The materials between the mother and the foetus are exchanged with the help of the
placenta.
• The transfer of nutrients and oxygen also takes place through the placenta.
• The antibodies that are required for the immunity of the foetus are provided through the
placenta.
• The development of foetus happens through the hormones provided by the placenta.

26. Distinguish between pollination and fertilisation. Mention the site and product of
fertilisation in a flower. Draw a neat, labelled diagram of a pistil showing .

Pollination Fertilisation

Pollen grains are transferred from Fusion of male and female gametes
another to stigma. takes place.
 Happens outside the ovary. Happens Inside the ovary.

It happens before fertilization. It is the next step after pollination.

Site of fertilization: Ovary

Product of fertilization: Zygote

27. How does fertilisation occur in flowers? Name the parts of the flower that develop into
(i) seed, and (ii) fruit after fertilisation.

In the given figure, A represents the pollen grain, B represents the pollen tube, C
represents the ovary, D represents the female germ cell.
After fertilization,
(i) The ovule develops into a seed.
(ii) The ovary develops into a fruit.

28. Why do testes lie outside the abdominal cavity?

Formation of sperms needs lower temperature than the normal body temperature hence testes
lie outside the body cavity in the scrotum.

Diagrams of:
1.fertilization in plants
2.germination
3.human male reproductive system
4.human female reproductive system
5. pollen tube growth and its entry into the ovule.
6.seed -plumule and radicle.