BIO 101: GENERAL

BIOLOGY I

LECTURE 11: GENERAL

REPRODUCTION

Dr. Adebimpe N. Adedeji-Badmus

 Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of two
gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the production of offspring
that are genetically different from each other.
• Sexual reproduction involves the production of sex cells. These sex
cells are called gametes and they are made in reproductive organs.
The process of cell division that produces the gametes is called
meiosis.
• In sexual reproduction, the male and female gametes come together
and fuse, that is, their cytoplasm and nuclei join together to form a
single cell called a zygote. The zygote then grows into a new
individual.
• In flowering plants, the male gametes are found in pollen grains and
the female gametes, called egg cells, are present in ovules.
• In animals, male gametes are sperms and female gametes are eggs.
• In both plants and animals, the male gamete is microscopic and
mobile (i.e. can move from one place to another). The sperm swim
to the ovum; the pollen cell moves down the pollen tube.
• The female gametes are always larger than the male gametes and
are not mobile.
• Pollination in seedbearing plants and mating in most animals
bring the male and female gametes close together.

The diagram showing the male and female gametes of plant and animal. Source: Mackean &
Hayward, 2014.
 Sexual reproduction in plants
• Flowers are reproductive structures. They contain the
reproductive organs of the plant. The male organs are the
stamens, which produce pollen. The female organs are the
carpels.
• In the flowers of most plants, there are both stamens and
carpels. These flowers are, therefore, both male and female, a
condition known as bisexual or hermaphrodite.
• Some species of plants have unisexual flowers, i.e. any one
flower will contain either stamens or carpels but not both.
• Sometimes both male and female flowers are present on the same
plant, e.g. the maize, which has male (tassels) and female (ear)
reproductive structure on the same plant.
• In some other plants, on the other hand, the male and female
structures are on different plants
• The process that brings the male gamete within reach of the female
gamete (i.e. from stamen to stigma) is called pollination. The pollen
grain grows a microscopic tube, which transport the male gamete to
meet the female gamete for fertilization.
• The zygote then grows to form the seed.
Flower structure

The basic structure of a flower. Source: Wikipedia

Petals
• Petals are usually brightly coloured and sometimes scented. They are
arranged in a circle or a cylinder. Most flowers have from four to ten
petals. Sometimes they are joined together to form a tube and the
individual petals can no longer be distinguished.

Source: Mackean & Hayward, 2014.

• The flowers of grasses and many trees do not have petals but
small, leaf-like structures that enclose the reproductive organs.

Source: Mackean & Hayward, 2014.

Sepals
• Outside the petals is a ring of sepals. They are often green and much
smaller than the petals. They may protect the flower when it is in the
bud. The sepals collectively form the calyx, which is the outer most
whorl of a flower.

Stamens
• The stamens are the male reproductive organs of a flower. Each
stamen has a stalk called the filament, with an anther on the end.
Each anther consists of four pollen sacs in which the pollen grains
are produced by cell division. When the anthers are ripe, the pollen
sacs split open and release their pollen.
 Carpels
• Carpel are the female
reproductive organs. Carpel
consists of an ovary, bearing a
style and a stigma. Inside the
ovary, there are one or more
ovules.

• The style and stigma project from

the top of the ovary. The stigma
has a sticky surface and pollen
grains will stick to it during
pollination. The style may be
The structure of an anther. Source: Mackean & Hayward , 2014. quite short or very long
Receptacle
• The receptacle is the swollen or extended part of the pedicel to
which the different part of the flower is attached. In some cases
after fertilization, the receptacle becomes fleshy and edible (e.g.
apple and pear) while in others, it is reduced after fertilization.

Pedicel/Peduncle
• The pedicel is the stalk that connects the flowers to the stem, which
composes of the same set of tissues as the stem.
Pollination
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
The anthers split open, exposing the microscopic pollen grains. The pollen
grains are then carried away on the bodies of insects, or simply blown by the
wind, and may land on the stigma of another flower.
• There are two type of pollination;

• Self-pollination: This type of pollination occurs when pollen grains from

the anther fall directly onto the stigma of the same flower.
• Cross-pollination involves the transfer of pollen from the anther of one
flower to the stigma of a different flower.
• Out of these two type of pollination, which one increases genetic diversity?
• Self-pollination results in a reduction in genetic diversity because
the sperm and egg cells of the same flower share genetic
information.

• Cross-pollination results in an increase in genetic diversity because

the different flowers are sharing and mixing their genetic
information to create unique offspring.

• What are the several methods that flowering plants use to transfer
pollen from one flower to another?
Fertilization in plants

• Fertilization is the fusion of male gamete (pollen) with the

female gamete (ovule) to form a zygote.

• After pollination is complete, the pollen grows a microscopic

tube and move down the stigma to fertilize the ovule. The
cell that is formed by after fertilization is called a zygote and
this develops into an embryo of a plant.
 Sexual reproduction in animals
• An animal having male sex cells called ‘sperms’ in its body is
called male and an animal having female sex cells called ‘ova’ or
‘eggs’ in its body is called female.
• Gamete is sexual reproductive cells. They are of two types: male
gametes and female gametes.
• The male gamete in animal is called ‘sperm’ and the female gamete
in animals is called ‘ovum’ or ‘egg’. The plural of ovum is ova.
Sperm cells are hundreds or thousands time smaller than ovum or
egg and have a long tail. The sperm are motile which can move
independently with the help of their tails.
Hermaphroditism
• Hermaphroditism occurs in animals in which one individual has both male
and female reproductive systems.
• Invertebrates such as earthworms, slugs, tapeworms, and snails are often
hermaphroditic.
• Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize, but typically they will mate with another
of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring.
• Self-fertilization is more common in animals that have limited mobility or
are not motile, such as barnacles and clams.
• Many species have specific mechanisms in place to prevent self-
fertilization, because it is an extreme form of inbreeding and usually
produces less fit offspring.
Fertilization in animals
• The fusion of a sperm and an egg is a process called fertilization.
The nuclei of the egg and the sperm fuse together to form a single
nucleus, which is called zygote (fertilized egg or ovum).
• The zygote grows and develops to form a new baby. The stage of
development between the zygote or fertilized egg and the newly
formed baby is called embryo.
• Fertilization can occur either inside (internal fertilization) or
outside (external fertilization) the body of the female.
Internal Fertilization

• The fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female
is known as internal fertilization. For example, humans, cows,
dogs, etc.

• This method is more prevalent in terrestrial animals.

However, some aquatic animals also adopt this method. This
may take place by direct introduction of sperms by the male
in the female reproductive tract, or the male deposits the
sperms in the environment which is picked up by the female
in her reproductive tract.
• There are three ways by which offspring are produced by internal
fertilization:

• Oviparity– The fertilized eggs are laid outside, where they receive
nourishment from the yolk.
• Ovoviviparity– The fertilized eggs are retained in the female’s
body where they receive nourishment from the yolk. The eggs are
laid right before they are hatched.
• Viviparity– The offspring are born directly instead of hatching
from the eggs. They receive nutrition from the mother. This can be
seen in mammals.
External Fertilization

• The fertilization that takes place outside the female body is called
external fertilization.
• Most fertilization takes place during the process of spawning
where one or several females release their eggs and the male(s)
release sperm in the same area, at the same time.
• Environmental signals such as water temperature, the length of
daylight trigger spawning.
• Example include frogs, fish, crabs, oysters, sea urchins,
mosquitoes e.t.c
 Oviparous Ovoviviparous Viviparous
Meaning
Animals that lay eggs and keep
Animals that give birth to the young
Egg-laying animals them inside the mother body until
ones
they are hatched
Fertilization
Either internal or external Fertilization is internal Fertilization is internal
Laying of eggs
Yes Yes No
Nutrients to the developing embryo
Provided by the mother through the
Provided by the egg yolk Provided by the egg yolk
placenta
Development of zygote
The embryo develops outside the The embryo develops inside the The embryo develops entirely inside
mother body mother. the mother.
Survival chances
The young one is protected inside The young one is protected inside the
There are fewer chances of survival
the mother and so there are chances mother and so the chances of survival
since the eggs are laid outside the body
of survival. are more.
Examples
Some reptiles, fish, amphibians and
Insects, birds, fish, reptiles and
Some reptles and amphibians mammals (Humans, dogs, cats,
amphibians, etc.
horses)
Thank you