Reproduction

All living organisms show reproduction.

• Reproduction: Reproduction is defined as a biological

process that make more of the same kind of organisms-
new individuals.
 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• It involves one parent only.

• The offspring are genetically identical to their parent
• No specialized cells like gametes are produced.
• Large number of organisms produced in a very short time.

 Definition: Asexual reproduction the process resulting in the

production of genetically identical offspring from one parent
Asexual reproduction:  
 
 Asexual reproduction:  Advantages
1. The process is quick.
2. Only one parent is needed.
3. No gametes are needed.
4. Maintaining the exact genetic characteristics of the parent plant.
5. It allows for the survival of species.

Asexual reproduction:  Disadvantages

1. There is little variations.
2. It is difficult to control the increasing population.
3. The organisms produced cannot adapt to the changing environments.
4. All the negative mutations persist for generations.
 Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of haploid nuclei

to form a diploid zygote and the production of  genetically dissimilar
offspring
 Sexual reproduction
• Fertilisation -- the fusion of the nuclei of
gametes

• Nuclei of gametes are haploid

• Nucleus of zygote is diploid
 Sexual reproduction:  Advantages
1. Offspring shows variations.
2. New varieties can be developed. 
3. New traits are enable the offspring to colonise and reproduce in new
areas, enabling the plant to spread.
Sexual reproduction:  Disadvantages

1. Two parents needed.

2. Fertilization is random, so harmful variation can occur.
3. Very complex process compare to asexual reproduction.
4. It does not lead to genetic variation in a population
 Sexual reproduction in plants
Flowering plants carry out sexual reproduction by producing flowers.

The parts of the flower are arranged in a ring form attached to the end
of a swollen stalk.
 Flower structure and function

Pollen grain is made here Stigma

Anther Receive pollen
Stamen grains
Male sex
organs
Filament Style
Holds the anther Links the stigma Carpel
to the ovary
Petal Ovary Female
Brightly coloured and Has ovules that contain sex
scented structure female gamete organs

Sepal
Green leaf-like structure
that protect the flower in
bud stage

The flowers vary in structure based on the pollination.

Wind-pollinated flower
 Pollination and it’s agents

• Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from

the anther to a stigma of a plant of the same
species.
• Pollination may be carried out by insects or by
the wind.
Insect pollinated flowers
Wind pollinated flowers
COMPARE THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS
OF INSECT-POLLINATED & WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS
Self pollination and cross pollination
 Pollination
Self-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a
flower to the stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the
same plant

Cross-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a

flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same
species

Cross-pollination leads to greater genetic diversity because the male

and female gametophytes are derived from different plants.

During self-pollination, the pollen grains are not transmitted from

one flower to another. As a result, there is less wastage of pollen.
 Fertilisation
For successful fertilization, pollen must germinate on the stigma, grow through
the style, and find and penetrate the ovule micropyle.
 Fertilisation :
stigma

style

carpel

ovary

ovule

1. The fusion of male gamete and female gamete (egg) inside

the ovule is called fertilization.
2. Fertilization results in the formation of zygote
 Fertilisation
Fertilisation occurs when a polle
nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule
 FERTILIZATION
• After successfully landing on the stigma of flower of the
same species, pollen start to germinate.
• Pollen grains absorb sugary solution from the stigma.
• Pollen germinates to produce a pollen tube.
• The pollen tube grows down the style of the carpel.
• Growing pollen tube carry male gametes (Sperm)
• The pollen tube complete its growth by entering an
opening in the ovule.
• The male gamete moves from the tube to fuse with the
egg (in ovule)
 Effects of germination

For seeds to germinate, they need to imbibe water. For

this to occur, sufficient moisture must be present.
A warmer climate may increase evaporation and
decrease moisture, which would negatively affect
germination.
Seeds need oxygen so that they can produce energy for
germination and growth.
Too much water can rot seeds before they get to grow.
 Conditions for seed germination

1. Water is needed for seed to swell. This swelling

breaks the testas of some seeds.
2. Activate enzymes.
3. Transport of simple materials to the embryo

1. Oxygen is needed for aerobic respiration to provide

the embryo with energy.

1. Suitable warm temperature is needed for efficient

enzyme action.
Male reproductive system
 continued...
Penis — the organ used for urination and sexual intercourse. It has spongy tissue
which can fill with blood to cause an erection. It contains the urethra, which carries
both urine and semen.

Scrotum — this is a loose bag of skin that hangs outside the body, behind the penis. It
holds the testes in place.

Testes (or testicles) — these are a pair of egg-shaped glands that sit in the scrotum, on
the outside of the body. They produce sperm and testosterone, which is the male sex
hormone.

Prostate gland — this is a walnut-sized gland that sits in the middle of the pelvis. The
urethra runs through the middle of it. It produces the fluid secretions that support and
nourish the sperm.

Urethra — this is a tube that extends from the bladder to the external opening at the
end of the penis. The urethra carries both urine and sperm.
Female reproductive system
 Female reproductive system
Vagina enables you to experience sexual pleasure, channels period
blood outside of your body, and plays a role in both pregnancy and
childbirth.

Ovaries produce eggs and hormones, they secrete hormones, they

protect the eggs a female is born with and they release eggs for
possible fertilization

The oviduct regulates fertilization through sperm guidance and

sperm hyperactivation.

Uterus where a fertilized egg implants during pregnancy and where

your baby develops until birth.

Cervix allowing fluids to pass between your uterus and vagina.

 Adaptions

The acrosome contains proteins, including enzymes

that help the sperm penetrate the egg.
Mitochondria, located in the midpiece of the sperm,
provide the energy for movement of the flagellum.
The sperm flagellum has the typical eukaryotic 9+2
arrangement of microtubules.
The flagellum helps in the motility of the sperm.
 Adaptions

Jelly coat helps the sperm swim towards and

fertilise an egg.
Egg cell has adapted to it's function by the
presence of cytoplasm
 Conditions required for germination
Summarise the findings of the experiment shown below:
Pyrogallol (absorbs oxygen)
No light

Oxygen Oxygen Oxygen Oxygen

present present present present

No
oxygen

moist dry moist moist moist

4oC Warm Warm Warm Warm

A B C D E
 Comparing
• Female gametes are larger than male gametes
• Sperm cells or spermatozoa are small and
motile due to the flagellum, a tail-shaped
structure that allows the cell to propel and
move.
• In contrast, each egg cell or ovum is relatively
large and non-motile. I
• Early development, the zygote forms an
embryo which is a ball of cells that implants
into the lining of the uterus
Fetus
 Fetus

• The placenta helps to keep your baby alive and healthy during
pregnancy. Also removes waste products from the baby's
blood.
• Blood passes through the placenta and provides oxygen,
glucose and nutrients to your baby through the umbilical cord.
• Amniotic fluid surrounds the growing fetus in the womb and
protects the fetus from injury and temperature changes
• Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta adn
affect the fetus
 Sexual hormones
• Testosterone – a hormone produced by the testes which
controls the development of male secondary sexual
characteristics , for example, facial hair. speeding a boy's
growth in height during puberty.
• Oestrogen – a hormone produced by the ovaries which
controls the development of female secondary sexual
characteristics, for example breast development.
• Secondary sexual characteristics, such as private and
armpit hair, also start to grow when estrogen levels rise.
 Growth
1. What do you mean by growth…?
• Permanent increase in size and dry mass of an organism, by an
increases in cell number or cell size or both.

What are the ways to measure the plant growth….?

 Growth
What are the ways to measure the plant growth….?

• Wet mass
• Dry mass
Changes in dry mass of the germinating seed:

Seed loses weight as it uses up

starch stores in the cotyledons
as the seedling cannot
photosynthesise yet

Dry mass/g
Weight increases as
the seedling can
photosynthesise and
Dry mass is the plant grows
mass of solid
matter with all
water removed

Days
 Development

Development………….?
– As the plant and animal grow, the cells of an
organism become specialized and the organism
becomes more complex. This is termed
development.