INTRODUCTION

There are various types of vegetation existing on earth. Each vegetation has distinct plants,
soil type weather and other conditions. The primary factors governing the composition and
growth of plants are variations in the climate, particularly in changes in precipitation and
temperature. The growth and cover of vegetation are impacted by high or low temperatures,
high or low precipitation, or both. The dynamics of the vegetation are significantly impacted
by increased climate variability brought on by global warming. As a result, climatic indices
are frequently employed to understand potential vegetation changes brought on by climate
variability and extremes. Globally, climate variability is to blame for 64% of the changes in
vegetation. Additionally, crucial information on how terrestrial ecosystems may impact the
climate is provided by changes in vegetation. In order to establish mitigation methods, the
vegetation-climate nexus offers crucial information on climate change and bio-environmental
sensitivity. Northwest Bangladesh’s (NWB) ecology is distinct from other regions. In
comparison to other areas, the geographic variability of rainfall and temperature is greater in
this area. Climate extremes, particularly temperature extremes, occur throughout the area.
The wintertime low temperature is 10 degrees Celsius, and the summertime high temperature
is 40 degrees Celsius(Uddin etal, 2021).

Factors affecting the vegetation of a region are temperature, stomatal conductance,

photosynthetic rate, CO2 concentrations etc. Here we consider temperature as a parameter for
comparing temperature between evergreen and deciduous plants. Future increases in global
temperature are expected as a result of global warming. As a result, plants growing in
tropical, subtropical, and temperate areas will experience heat stress more frequently. This
will have an impact on agriculture and the environment. One of the plant processes that is
particularly vulnerable to heat stress is photosynthesis, which is frequently impeded before
other cellular processes are hampered. Damage from heat stress affects a number of
photosynthetic processes, including the dark response and photochemical processes involving
photosystems 1 (PS1) and 2. But research has indicated that PS2 is the part of the
photosynthetic machinery that is most sensitive to temperature changes.

The interdecadal global warming during the past few decades is shown by a time series of the
global mean surface temperature taken from in situ data. According to numerous studies,
fundamental human factors like greenhouse gases and land usage are a significant cause of

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this growing tendency. As the topography changes due to urbanisation, agricultural activities,
and deforestation, the impact of human land use on surface warming may become
increasingly significant.

As we all familiar that the solar radiation from the sun provide temperature for the existence
of life in earth. The radiation from the sun gets trapped in the atmosphere due to the presence
of greenhouse gases and it reflects back the radiation to keep a normal temperature in earth.
The amount of sunlight reaching earth varies at different times. But increase in greenhouse
gases increases the trapping of radiation there by increases the atmospheric temperature
causing global warming.

In isotope analyses of tree rings, it has long been assumed that leaves in the tree canopy were
connected to the ambient environment, and hence that the temperature and relative humidity
experienced by the leaf were the same as those experienced by ambient air. However, it has
long been known that leaf temperatures can differ from ambient temperatures due to
variations in water loss, convective heat loss, and reflectance, which can cause leaf
temperatures to rise or fall. Because the saturation vapour pressure of water vapour inside the
leaf is affected exponentially by temperature, the evaporative gradient from leaf to air is
affected. As a result of any adaptation that causes a systematic offset between leaf and
ambient temperature, leaf relative humidity might range significantly from ambient relative
humidity. It is well known that, depending on the structural and physiological characteristics
of the leaf, leaf temperature can differ from air temperature. Plant leaves are generally cooler
than air at above optimal temperatures and hotter than air at below optimum temperatures in
well-watered conditions. This is known as "limited homeothermy" and it is a plant's adaptive
reaction to keep leaf temperatures within the optimal range for photosynthesis. The surface
temperature of a leaf exposed to the atmosphere is called plant leaf temperature. The
guarantee for the plant to carryout it’s life activities is leaf temperature, which is closely
related to plant health and crop planting management. The ability to accurately monitor leaf
temperature is critical for understanding physiological conditions and guiding agricultural
irrigation.

The temperature of a leaf is clearly influenced by its orientation, exposure to direct sun
radiation, age, and other factors. Because all leaves are in diverse circumstances, determining
a single number for the entire canopy is difficult. Leaf temperature is a simple physiological
metric that may be used to quantify plant transpiration indirectly and is highly associated with

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water availability. The physiological structure of the plant as well as meteorological
conditions such as sun radiation, air temperature and wind influence leaf temperature. The
temperature of leaves changes throughout time. (Medina et al, 1978).

Our country's study on leaf temperature began very late, and it has yet to acquire world-leader
status in the use and measurement of leaf temperature, so there is much opportunity for
improvement. To begin with, leaf temperature research is still in its early stages, and
employing leaf temperature to study crop evapotranspiration, irrigation, variety breeding, and
yield forecasting should be improved. Leaf temperature applications should be explored in
the direction of precision agriculture. Second, when measuring crop leaf temperature, we
should look at the impacts on temperature at different times and in different sections of the
leaf, as well as the degree to which young and old leaves can affect leaf temperature.

Accurate measurements of leaf temperature are critical for understanding a variety of

biochemical and bio geophysical processes, but they're difficult to come by, especially in the
field. For leaf temperature measurements, many recent investigations have employed infrared
thermography. Because of the tiny variations between leaf and air temperatures (4 °C) in the
large seasonal and diurnal fluctuation of field conditions, measuring non-contact leaf surface
temperature has been challenging in the past. Under bright conditions, leaf temperature
reflects the effect of leaf orientation and the amount of sunlight absorbed by the leaf. In spite
of the heavy rainfall, fixed leaf angles serve as a lowering factor for leaf temperature on dry
days, which occur often throughout the year (Muller et al, 2021).

When radiation is high and wind speed is low, the boundary layer conductance to heat
transfer is small enough that leaf temperature can rise much above air temperature. The
highest temperature differential between leaf and air temperatures during a two-month period
approached 6 degrees Celsius. During this time, leaf temperature exceeded air temperature by
more than 2 °C for 10% of daylight hours. The temperature of the leaves is affected by high
boundary layer conductance. The boundary layer around a leaf not only provides resistance to
water vapour diffusion, but it also provides resistance to heat transfer between the leaf and its
surroundings. As a result, because heat is easily convected from the leaf to the surrounding
air, large boundary layer conductance to heat transfer (gbH) result in minor differences
between air and leaf temperatures. Because conifer gbH is supposed to be quite large, it is
usually thought that conifer needle temperatures rarely, if ever, deviate by more than one

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degree from air temperature. This hypothesis is supported by some studies of leaf temperature
in conifers (Martin et al, 1998).

It has long been recognised that the temperature of leaves varies by several degrees, and in
certain cases by more than ten degrees. The combined sensible and latent heat fluxes at the
leaf surface must balance net radiation. In grapevines, changes in leaf temperature have been
linked to rates of stomatal conductance and leaf or stem water potential, with responsiveness
varying by cultivar .Thermal resistance measurement, thermocouple measurement, infrared
temperature measurement, infrared thermal imaging measurement, and the leaf temperature
model can all be used to assess leaf temperature. Each method for monitoring leaf
temperature has its unique set of properties. Clearly, infrared temperature measurement has
more advantages in the measurement of leaf temperature. This non-contact measurement
method has the advantages of a wide range and quick reaction, making it ideal for measuring
vast areas. However, emissivity, distance, environment temperature, and atmospheric
absorption are all factors that affect the accuracy of infrared temperature measurement.
Infrared sensor accuracy and essential technology need to be enhanced. Infrared temperature
measurement will become more frequent as the cost of infrared instrument production falls.

The physical characteristics of leaves and how they interact with the environment affect how
hot they are. Varied plant species should experience distinct leaf temperatures even in the
same environmental conditions because they have different combinations of
thermoregulatory features, such as leaf size, stomatal conductance, and thermal absorptivity.
Since leaf and air temperatures can be dissociated, it follows that heat tolerances should
correspond more with severe leaf temperatures than with regional climates. Importantly, this
theory might contribute to the understanding of why plants tolerances to heat differ between
populations and in ordinary garden studies.

We are incredibly unaware of the impact that temperature has, particularly in the near term,
on the regulation of leaf photosynthesis. We must understand what modifications to the
capabilities of its component processes enable adaptation of carbon absorption to temperature
and, as a result, enable metabolic activity to proceed effectively over a reasonably wide range
of temperatures.

Among the key sociological factors that affect how plants are distributed naturally,
temperature has a significant role. The average temperature in habitats used by higher plants

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varies dramatically during the time of active growth, varying from over 50 °C in the hottest
deserts to near freezing in some arctic and alpine regions. Additionally, in many habitats, a
single plant individual is susceptible to significant diurnal temperature fluctuations in
addition to quite broad seasonal variations in temperature regime. Temperature has a
significant impact on photosynthesis, just like it does on practically all other growth
processes. Temperature-related changes in photosynthetic rate are often reversible in most
plants across a wide range (about 10° to 35°C), but exposure to temperatures below or
beyond this range may result in permanent damage to the photosynthetic system. Extreme
temperatures can therefore significantly reduce photosynthesis by impairing system integrity,
in addition to the effect of temperature on photosynthesis resulting from the intrinsic
temperature dependence of the process in the range over which the functional integrity of the
photosynthetic apparatus remains intact. Significant variations can be seen in higher plants
photosynthetic responses to temperature, particularly in their capacity to preserve functional
integrity at low and high temperature extremes. These adaptations can be thought of as
genotypic variations in essential components of the photosynthetic apparatus that allow plants
to thrive in the various native habitats temperature ranges. Additionally, some plants exhibit
significant phenotypic plasticity in their photosynthetic traits. Growing a particular genotype
under a cool regime improves its ability to photosynthesize at low temperatures, whereas
growing it under a warm regime improves its ability to photosynthesise at high temperatures.
Between species, there is a wide range in the potential for such photosynthetic acclimation to
growth temperature (Berry and Bjorkman, 1980)

Almost all of our current knowledge of plant photosynthesis is based on measurements taken
in conditions that are said to be steady-state or temporally constant. In contrast,
photosynthesis rarely, if ever, takes place in nature in stable conditions, but rather in
surroundings with varying temperatures, light levels, and other environmental factors. Under
the canopies of tropical forests, field investigations revealed significant fluctuations in
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) at various temporal scales ranging from seconds to
days. For leaf carbon acquisition, effective use of temporally changing light has been deemed
essential.

High temperatures have an impact on photosynthesis by modifying the Calvin cycle’s

activity, the distribution of excitation energy, the structure of thylakoids, and other metabolic
processes like photorespiration and product synthesis. Due to thylakoids’ great heat

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sensitivity, the former component has received the majority of attention, whereas the
limitations on carbon metabolism brought on by high temperatures have almost solely been
interpreted as having an impact on CO2 availability. Increased temperatures have been shown
to impact the diffusion of CO2 and O2 as well as the Rubisco enzyme’s affinity for
carboxylation; however it has been suggested that the stimulation of photorespiration does
not adequately account for these effects. The supply of RuBP may be constrained by
restricted electron transport, according to some theories. Additionally, it must be taken into
account that temperature changes generate variations in enzyme activity, and that these
fluctuations fluctuate depending on the values of the various enzymes involved in a given
process. Such a phenomenon is anticipated in photosynthesis, particularly in the reactions
directly related to CO2, assimilation, sucrose, and starch synthesis, and there is proof that
changes in the properties of enzymes like cytosolic fructose bis phosphatase and sucrose
phosphate synthase brought on by changes in temperature help to regulate metabolism. A
level is reached, beyond which only a small increase in gas exchange is seen in the rate of
increase in CO assimilation with increasing temperatures. At 20 and 25 degrees Celsius, the
rate of change is at its highest; at 30 degrees Celsius, the rate of assimilation is almost at its
highest. Only a slight change in the gas-exchange rate is seen when the temperature is raised
to 35°C. The availability of CO 2 has been shown to be limited by temperature, either as a
result of leaf physiological responses that increase resistance to gas diffusion or as a result of
CO2 and O2’s competitive solubility for the same acceptor. Mild temperature increases kept
the RuBP/PGA ratio low and reduced Rubisco activity without slowing down the
photosynthetic rate (Labate and Leegood, 1988).

Temperate forests at mid-latitudes in eastern North America, eastern Asia, and northwest
Europe, on the other hand, are dominated by deciduous broad-leaved trees. Seasonally
deciduous forests and savannas cover tropical and subtropical locations with strong dry
seasons but limited thermal seasonality. Plants with a deciduous leaf habit benefit from
abundant resources, whereas plants with an evergreen leaf habit benefit from a scarcity of
resources. Ecophysiological features may be essential in explaining the differences in
distributions of evergreen and deciduous plants. An evergreen plant is one with foliage that
remains green and functioning over several growing seasons. This also applies to plants that
only keep their foliage in warm climates, as opposed to deciduous plants, which lose their
leaves entirely during the winter or dry season. Deciduous trees typically drop their leaves in
response to a cold or dry/wet season. There are numerous advantages to having an evergreen

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leaf habit. The fact that evergreen leaves photosynthesize longer than deciduous leaves is the
most important factor. As a result, evergreen trees have lower amortised construction and
fertiliser acquisition costs than deciduous trees. Evergreen trees incur metabolic and
ecological costs and stressors that deciduous trees do not. Long-lived leaves must be able to
tolerate herbivory for longer periods of time and produce volatile chemical substances that
act as herbivore defences. Furthermore, due to frost, drought, excessive light and
temperature, or a combination of variables, evergreen leaves are subjected to a variety of
challenges. Deciduous trees compensate for a shorter growing season by developing leaves
with better photosynthetic rates per unit mass than evergreen trees; shorter-lived leaves
require less structural and chemical defence compound investment . There is a lot of evidence
in the literature that evergreen and deciduous broadleaf trees have varied responses to
herbivores. Evergreens are more likely than deciduous trees to use premature leaf abscission,
whilst deciduous trees are more likely to produce secondary chemicals (Baldocchi et al,
2010)

Tropical ecosystems that are seasonally dry, including savannas and dry forests, can be found
in the Americas, Africa, India, and Australia. They support sizable human populations,
control regional climate, provide as areas for the preservation of biological and cultural
resources, and are of great economic importance. Coexistence of evergreen, deciduous, semi-
deciduous, and brevi-deciduous trees is common. These diverse phenological groupings react
to variations in soil and atmospheric water content in different ways, according to recent
studies. Cost-benefit assessments of evergreen and deciduous species demonstrate how leaves
of evergreen species live slowly but for a longer period of time whereas those of deciduous
species live quickly and die young.

Evergreen species maintain a full canopy throughout the year, with a less than 10% reduction
during the dry season. Contrarily, deciduous plants lose all of their leaves for at least one, but
typically two to four, months out of the year. Semi deciduous plants lose at least 50% of their
leaves annually, despite not appearing to be a significant functional group in seasonally dry
woodlands and forests elsewhere in the world. Brevi-deciduous species differ from semi
deciduous species in that they never lose more than 50% of their leaves and, on rare
occasions when the rainy season is prolonged and the dry season is brief, may only lose a tiny
portion of their canopy. Evergreen plants are typically able to sustain a positive turgor

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potential at lower leaf values than deciduous species, which enables them to continue to
operate at lower soil water potentials.

When compared to the wet season, the photosynthetic rate of mature evergreen trees only
slightly decreases (15–50%) during the dry season. As a result, these species keep a positive
carbon balance throughout the year. Semi-deciduous species demonstrated a loss of 25–75%
in absorption rate per unit leaf area, which when combined with a 50–75%decrease in leaf
area, represents a significant reduction in monthly carbon acquisition during the dry season.
When deciduous plants are without leaves for 2 to 6 months out of the year, their absorption
rate drops by 100%. (D. Eamus et al., unpublished). How do evergreen species and deciduous
species coexist when their annual carbon budgets appear to be so different but their life forms
are so similar? This is a crucial question.

Leafless periods range from two to seven months each year for deciduous trees. They are
unable to fix carbon at this time and must rely on reserves to maintain root and shoot
respiration. All year long, evergreen trees sequester carbon. It is not immediately clear how
such disparate tactics can coexist in the same plant form (in these case, trees). Cost-benefit
analysis makes the assumption that plant architectures have costs and benefits. The advantage
accrued is the carbon fixed over the course of the leaf's life, which comes at a cost to the tree
in terms of construction and maintenance. When light levels are so low that retaining those
leaves would be more expensive than keeping them, leaves on lower branches of trees
frequently senesce and abscise.

According to theoretical considerations, the cost of leaf production should rise as the leaf’s
lifetime does. For this reason, long-lived leaves should have more protective substances
and/or structures since, as their lifespan grows, the likelihood of herbivore damage increases.
Short-lived leaves should also be less expensive to build because the payback interval (the
amount of time it takes for the construction expenditures to be recovered by fixing carbon) is
shorter. This argument can be improved by stating that leaf longevity should be associated
with the cost benefit ratio of building as measured by carbon gain. Therefore, for deciduous
species to maximise benefit to a tree, photosynthetic rates should be high, requiring a large
investment of nitrogen, whereas for evergreen species, nitrogen content should be relatively
low and leaves should be sclerophyllous to maximise bitterness and to survive harsh dry
season conditions (i.e., have thick cell walls and be resistant to drought and insect attack).

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Results frequently confirm these expectations. In comparison to evergreen species, deciduous
trees often maintain higher nitrogen levels (per unit dry weight) and, as a result, a higher rate
of light saturation absorption. Similar to this, evergreen species typically have smaller
specific leaf areas than deciduous species due to the more sclerophyllous nature of evergreen
leaves (defined as leaf area divided by leaf dry weight). In a study of Australian savannas,
maximum construction costs were higher for evergreen species than for deciduous ones.
Theoretical arguments support this conclusion, although it differs with work done in other
savannas where deciduous plants’ leaves have higher building costs. This discrepancy in
results is most likely caused by the fact that Australian savannas, which are predominately
made up of Eucalypts, are more sclerophyllous and have a greater oil content than evergreen
(Givish T J, 2002).

In this study we consider three evergreen and three deciduous plants. Mangiferaindica,
Syzygiumcampanulatum, Artocarpusheterophyllus as evergreen varieties and Tectonagrandis,
Azadiractaindica and Phyllanthusacidus as deciduous varieties of Kodappali village in
Malappuram district.

Over 4000 years ago, Mangiferaindica, commonly referred to as mango or aam, was a
significant herb in the Ayurvedic and traditional medical systems. In the flowering plant
family Anacardiaceae, the genus Mangifera, which includes roughly 30 species of tropical
fruiting trees, is where mangoes are found. Different components of the mango tree are
thought to have a variety of therapeutic benefits according to Ayurveda. A large, 10-45 m-
tall, evergreen tree belonging to the anacardiaceae family. The linear-oblong, lanceolate-
elliptic, pointy leaves are spirally arranged on the branches. An inflorescence of roughly 3000
small, whitish-red or yellowish-green flowers grows in panicles.

Syzygium are frequently cultivated as ornamental plants because of their lovely, glossy
foliage. Some cultivars produce fruit that can be consumed fresh or used to make jams and
jellies. There are numerous uses for it. If unchecked, it can grow quickly to a height of up to 4
m, has dense foliage, and is evergreen. Syzygium are sensitive to extreme cold and frost, but
will grow almost anywhere. Syzygiumcampanulatum has attractive leaves in colourful
pinkish-red shades from young shoots and its pyramid-shaped canopy makes it a choice plant
for narrow avenue planting. Plant is commonly grown as a hedge and provide attractive
features when sculptured into nice topiaries.

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Artocarpusheterophyllus Lam. Also called jackfruit tree is an evergreen tree produces
enormous fruits right from the stem. Most likely, jackfruit is a native of the Western Ghats’
rain forests. The jackfruit can weigh between 10 and 50 kg and can range in size from 8 to 3
feet long by 6 to 20 inches wide. Large “bulbs” of yellow, banana-flavoured flesh massed
between slender ribbons of thin, tough developing perianths and a central, pithy core make up
the interior. In a single fruit, there could be 100 or as many as 500 seeds. The tree is attractive
and imposing, growing to a height of 30 to 70 feet, and has evergreen, alternating, glossy,
slightly leathery leaves that are up to 9 inches long, oval on mature trees, and occasionally
oblong or deeply lobed on new shoots.

Tectonagrandis also called teak is a very well-liked timber tree that is native to Java, India,
and Burma. It is a deciduous tree that grows to be quite large. However, in urban areas, it
may be seen growing along the side of the road as a medium-sized tree with large leaves. For
furniture, teak is regarded as a good-quality wood. The tree’s opposite leaves are 30–60 cm
long and 15–30 cm wide. At the ends of branches, the flowers grow in loose clusters in great
numbers. They are white and only approximately 6 mm in diameter. The fruit is wrapped in a
persistent calyx and is about 15 mm wide and 15 mm thick. The monsoon is when flowers
bloom and the winter is when fruit ripens. The tree is bare from November to January.

Neem is a medium-sized tree with a large, rounded crown that can measure up to 10–20 m in
diameter. It can grow to a height of 15–30 m. It is mainly evergreen but sometimes sheds its
leaves during the dry season. Neem has a deep taproot and is a mycorrhizal-dependent
species. In older trees, the bark turns grey, becomes fissured, and flakes. In humid areas, aged
trees exude a sticky foetid sap. The branches are many and widely spaced. The mature leaves,
which measure 20–40 cm in length and have 10–20 leaflets each, are alternate, petiolated,
clustered at the ends of the branches, unequally pinnate, glabrous, and dark glossy green in
colour. The leaflets are sickle-shaped, 5–10 cm long, and 1–4 cm wide. They are also slightly
denticulate. Blooms are numerous, fragrant, white, and borne.

A small deciduous tree known as Phyllanthusacidus, often known as the Tahitian gooseberry
tree or the Otaheite gooseberry, is found in disturbed areas and moist tropical and subtropical
coastal woods. Although it has been domesticated for thousands of years and is now
widespread throughout the tropics and subtropics, evidence points to Madagascar as the
species’ original home. The mature trees can grow up to 30 feet tall, with a 20-foot wide,
spreading canopy that is heavily branched. On terminal clusters of branchlets, the ovate to

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lanceolate leaves (up to 3” long) are arranged in opposition and feature a blue-green bloom
on their bottom surfaces (up to 12” long). Deciduous refers to both the leaves and the
branchlets. Panicles (up to 5” long) that dangle directly from the main branches are bound
together by clusters of tiny, light pink flowers.

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 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

• To compare leaf temperatures of selected deciduous and evergreen plants of

Kodappali village of Malappuram District.

• To compare the correlation between leaf temperature and deciduousness of

species.

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 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

E. Medina et al (1978) carried out studies on influence of leaf orientations on leaf

temperature. Leaves of different species were bent and maintained in horizontal position with
a piece of masking tape between the leaf and stem. Striking differences in surface
temperature are observed between horizontally attached, cut leaves and leaves in a normal
position. Temperature differences are determined by leaf angle, leaf absorption coefficient,
and actual leaf water vapour diffusion resistance.

Berry and Bjorkman (1980) studied that however, the former plants often have a larger,
genetically determined capability for photosynthesis temperature acclimation, allowing them
to shift their optimal photosynthetic performance temperature range in tandem with seasonal
variations in temperature regime. Several parts of the photosynthetic system must change
during this temperature adaptation. The majority of these variations are based on targeted
changes to components of the photosynthetic apparatus that may restrict tolerance as well as
those that govern the capacity of photosynthesis throughout particular temperature ranges.
Because it serves as a metabolic CO2-concentrating mechanism, C4 photosynthesis is a
genetically fixed adaptation that significantly enhances photosynthetic efficacy at higher
temperatures. Changes in a number of the photosynthetic apparatus's components are
required for temperature adaptation. The ability to tolerate low or high temperatures is not
causally correlated with the presence or lack of the C4 pathway. The sensitivity of chloroplast
production to high and low temperatures varies significantly amongst plant species. Although
nothing is known about the causes of these variations, Bernstam contends that some of the
early processes at the beginning of translation are likely to take place on or near a specific
membrane. Consequently, initial steps in protein synthesis could be impacted by lipid-protein
interactions.

Labate and Leegood (1988) the objective of their study was to determine how sudden
temperature changes in the range of 5 to 30 affected the rate of photosynthetic carbon
absorption in barley leaves (Hordeum vulgare L.). When the temperature was decreased,
photosynthesis was saturated at progressively lower CO2 partial pressures, and the transition
between the CO2-limited and ribulose-l,5-bisphosphate-regeneration-limited rates became
more abrupt. This was demonstrated by measurements of the CO 2-assimilation rate in relation

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to the intercellular partial pressure of CO2 at various temperatures, CO2 concentrations, and
saturating irradiance. Feeding orthophosphate to leaves enhanced the rate of CO 2 assimilation
at lower temperatures at near-ambient or higher CO2 partial pressures for both 20 percent
oxygen and 2 percent oxygen, which thus eliminated the need for supplemental oxygen.

In accordance with Pastenes and Horton the study on two different bean (Phaseolus vulgarus)
varieties, Blue Lake and Barbucho, which are known to differ in their resistance to extremely
high temperatures, have been evaluated for the impact of high temperatures on CO2,
assimilation, metabolite content, and capacity for reducing power production in non-photo
respiratory conditions. Compared to Blue Lake, Barbucho is able to continue performing its
photosynthetic processes for a longer amount of time in hot conditions. Temperature
increases caused a drop in the ratio of rates at temperatures that differed by 10°C, which led
to an increase in the CO2 assimilation rate. It is hypothesized that metabolic limits, which can
be distinguished between those occurring in the range of 20 to 30°C and 30 to 35°C, are what
prevent CO2 from being assimilable to its full potential. Changes in the ability to regenerate
the Calvin cycle and produce starch are anticipated to have an impact on photosynthesis
between 20 and 30 degrees Celsius. However, the supply of decreasing power gets
constrained when the temperature rises from 30 to 35°C. It was determined that the
NADPH/NADP+ pool had been oxidized as a result of the restriction in the assimilatory
power through examination of adenylate concentration, trans thylakoid energization, and,
directly, NADPH/NADP+ ratio. Photosystem I quantum yield increased and photosystem II
maintained its value in the 30 to 35°C temperature range.

A conclusion can be drawn that the restructuring of thylakoids at 30 to 35°C increased the
excitation of photosystem I, increasing cyclic electron transport and decreasing the supply of
NADPH, limiting carbon absorption. According to Cabrera et al (1997-98) the rosette with
strongly impacted by soil temperature, Acaena showed identical photosynthetic optimal
temperatures at 2900 and 3550 m, but this was about 2°C higher at 4200 m. The ideal
temperature for photosynthesis increased or remained constant with altitude in two
acaulescent rosettes, Hypochoeris setosus and Calandrinia acaulis, respectively. Along an
altitudinal gradient in the Alps, identical photosynthesis-friendly temperatures were
discovered in a variety of herbaceous plants. Senecio, on the other hand, demonstrated a
decrease in the ideal leaf temperature for photosynthesis along with a drop in air temperatures
with elevation.

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Martin et al (1998) studied boundary conductance, leaf temperature and transpiration of
Abies amabilis. Branches of A. amabilis show potential range of leaf temperature elevations
over air temperature. Between August 18 and October 4, 1995, the daytime difference
between leaf and air temperature of the upper-canopy branches ranged from −4.2 to 4.7 °C. It
is unlikely that leaf temperature elevation resulting from shoot geometry is important for
carbon gain in Abies ramabilis during most of the growing season. On the other hand, sun
shoot geometry may influence carbon gain through effects on radiation transfer within shoots
and within the canopy.

Perez and Feeley summarized that PHTs, or photosynthetic heat tolerances, offer a variety of
potential uses, including identifying the species that will be most sensitive to climate change.
Considering that plants have distinct thermoregulatory characteristics that affect leaf
temperatures and decouple them, a correlation between PHTs and ambient air temperatures
was proposed. The air temperatures are not as harsh as those of the leaves. Thermoregulatory
characteristics, maximum leaf temperatures (TMO), and two Tcrit and T50 metrics of PHTs
are determined using the photosystem II quantum field. Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden
has 19 plant species growing there (Coral Gables, FL, USA).Micro environmental factors and
thermoregulatory characteristics were assessed at the garden and put to use to parameterize a
model of the leaf energy balance that approximated the maximum in situ leaf temperatures
(TMIS) for 13 species across their various geographic ranges.

According to Eamus(1999) about the eco physiological traits of deciduous and evergreen
woody plants he described various features that evergreen and deciduous plants. Their
adaptation as well as their differences were explained by him.

Raynolds et al (2008) concluded that Arctic summertime temperatures have been rising, and
as global warming continues, this tendency is anticipated to endure. There is evidence that as
summer temperatures rise, Arctic vegetation adapts. A 5 °C rise in SWI along the temperature
gradient over the whole Arctic was correlated with an increase in NDVI of roughly 0.07. In
partially vegetated and deglaciated areas, the NDVI (normalized difference vegetation
index)and SWI(summer warmth index)showed the largest positive correlation. These regions
probably responded less to global warming in terms of plant growth than other regions. The
NDVI patterns were also mirrored in the SWI maps, but they were more complex because of
the effects of lakes, various substrates, and various glacial ages.

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Baldocchi et al (2010) find deciduous and evergreen oak woodlands at both the wetter (Italy
and France) and drier locations (Portugal and California). The thermal climate of all five sites
is very comparable, as deduced by the similarity of their mean annual air temperatures. Both
deciduous and evergreen oak leaf forms respond differently to the varying climatic conditions
of the Mediterranean region. Deciduous oak (Q. ilex) has greater photosynthetic capacity than
evergreen Q. pubesens when they are well-watered.

Givinsh T.J(2002) studied adaptive significance of evergreen vs deciduous leaves, solving

triple paradox. Dominance of evergreen vs. deciduous leaves has long interested ecologists,
bio geographers, and global modellers. But previous models to account for these patterns
have significant weaknesses. No model has yet explained three great paradoxes, involving
dominance by evergreens in boreal forests and larch-exchangers in nutrient-poor peatlands. It
is generally recognized that seasonal drought can favour deciduous leaves, and that infertile
soils can favour long-lived evergreen leaves.

According to Wang and Deltour (2004) temperature is an important factor of the greenhouse
climate due to its significant effect on heat, water and CO2 exchanges. However, it is difficult
to measure because leaves are distributed in different locations. A new experimental model
for predicting the global vegetation temperature has been proposed.

Liu et al (2010-11) observed in his studies on maize leaf temperature response to drought that
significantly smaller apertures and decreased pore area were observed in the two maize
inbred lines under water stress conditions. Results indicated that to some extent, variation in
leaf temperature response to water is genetically associated with shoot biomass. In this study,
phenotypic, physiological and genetic analyses of leaf temperature response to water stress
showed significant positive association to biomass accumulation in maize seedlings.
Advanced infrared thermography generates high-definition thermal maps representing an
entire plant leaf temperature.

In accordance with Canavar (2013)the leaf temperature of young fully developed sunlit
leaves of sunflower and safflower was significantly increased in the drought stress condition
during all measuring times. There were differences among sunflower genotypes in terms of
leaf temperature in both drought-stress and well-watered conditions. Both sunflower and
safflower plants showed a higher leaf temperature during the 1-2 p.m. measuring time than
that of the 810 a.m., because of the increase in the ambient temperature. During all measuring

16
times, the leaf temperature was lower than the ambient temperature. The performance of all
sunflower and safflower genotypes under well-watered conditions in the morning time (8-10
a.m.) showed the same performance under drought-stress conditions. TR-3080 sunflower
hybrid cultivar fell into the first group statistically with the highest leaf temperature and the
value near to ambient temperature. The stem of a plant plays an important role in many
activities during the growth of sunflower because of the fact that ABA and water is
transported in the xylem from roots to shoots. This can cause stomata closure, decrease leaf
expansion and thus prevent the dehydration of leaf tissues. An infrared thermometer can
provide a rapid means of assessing the plant water status in drought-tolerant canopies. The
leaf temperature might not be the only selection character, due to its defensive mechanisms in
physiological characters associated with drought tolerance caused by very high complex. A
number of parameters, such as leaf water potential, leaf osmotic potential, canopy
temperature and others must be used and measured to screen the drought tolerance in many
crops.

According to Kang et al(2020)although there is a correlation between leaf temperature and

incident light intensity, it is not apparent how these changes affect photosynthesis. Under
three distinct temperature circumstances, we looked at the time courses of CO2 gas
exchanges and chlorophyll fluorescence of seedling leaves in four tropical tree species. The
three settings were two fixed temperatures of 30°C and 40°C (T30 and T40, respectively),
and a simulated progressive temperature change from 30 to 40°C. Under T40, the amount of
time needed to induce photosynthetic activity to 50% of its maximum level was comparable
to or even greater than under T30. However, under Tdyn as compared to either T30 or T40,
the assimilation rate (A), electron transport rate of photosystem II (ETR II), and the Rubisco
activation process were all typically accelerated.

Uddin et al (2021) summarized in his paper titled ‘vegetation response to climate and climatic
extremes in Northwest Bangladesh: A quantile regression approach’. The study assessed the
vegetation response to climate in the water-stressed northwest of Bangladesh. Quantile
regression analysis revealed a significant negative influence of extreme rainfall and a positive
impact of maximum temperature on vegetation. Overall, the study revealed a greater
influence of temperature than rainfall on vegetation change in the region. Bangladesh’s north-
western border region (NWB) is the most water-stress region, thus less vegetated compared

17
to other parts of the country. An increase in rainfall while a large temperature rise, projected
for the study area, would provide a favourable environment for vegetation growth.

Muller et al (2021) summarized that measurements of leaf temperature are crucial to

understand many biochemical and biogeophysic processes, but remain challenging,
particularly under field conditions. The results of this study identify several critical factors
that limit infrared-based temperature measurements. Measurements of non-contact leaf
surface temperature have been difficult in the past because of the small differences between
leaf and air temperatures. A novel 'dual-reference' method was developed to overcome these
issues and make more accurate thermal background radiant flux measurements.

18
 MATERIALS AND METHODS

For studying the leaf temperature here we selected three evergreen and three deciduous
plants. Mangifera indica, Artocarpus heterophyllusand Syzygium campanulatum are the
evergreen plants .Tectona grandis and Azadiracta indica are deciduous plants .Phyllanthus
acidus is a Semi- deciduous plant. For measuring temperature a digital thermometer is used.
The plants located at Kodappali in Malappuram District.

DIGITAL THERMOMETER

19
Fig 1.1- MangiferaindicaFig1.2-Syzygium campanulatumFig1.3-Artocarpus heterophyllus

20
 Fig1.4-Tectonagrandis Fig1.5-AzadiractaindicaFig1.6-Phyllanthus acidus

To measure the leaf surface temperature of the plants, a two digit precision digital
thermometer was used. For that the leaves of these plants are tagged and temperature was
measured at specific time points. Here five leaves of each plant is tagged. A black surface is
selected for taking reference temperature. The temperature of the reference material as well
as tagged leaves of each plants are measured at 6am,8am,10am,12pm,2pm,4pm and 6pm. The
values were noted and tabulated and analysed.

The leaf temperature measured using digital thermometer at various time of the day were
tabulated. The evergreen as well as deciduous show various leaf temperature
measurements at different time as show in the given table 1.1 . The observed values were
tested statistically using ANOVA for the mean of the temperature.

Time of temperature measurements

10 12
6 am 8 am 2pm 4pm 6pm
am pm
Reference
29.4 30.6 34.7 40.1 36.7 33.2 31.7
temperature
Evergreen
1.Mangifera indica L1 25.7 27.2 32.1 36.5 36.6 33 30.3
L2 25.7 27.2 32.1 36.3 36.5 33.1 30.2
L3 25.7 27.4 32.5 36.3 36.9 33.1 30.5
L4 25.7 27.3 32.1 36.4 36.8 33.2 30.5
L5 25.7 27.3 32.1 36.6 36.3 29.9 30.5
Average 25.7 27.28 32.18 36.42 36.62 32.46 30.4
2.Syzygium
L1 25.2 27.4 33.7 36.6 36.7 33 30.2
campanulatum
L2 25.5 27.5 33.6 36.4 37.3 32.8 30
L3 25.3 27.5 33.8 36.5 37.1 32.8 30
L4 25.2 27.5 33.6 36.7 37.8 33 30.4
L5 25.3 27.5 33.4 36.6 37 33 30.3
Average 25.3 27.48 33.62 36.56 37.18 32.92 30.18
L1 25.4 27.1 33.5 36.4 36.3 32.7 30.3

21
 L2 25.4 26.9 32.8 36.5 36.5 32.8 30.3
L3 25.6 26.9 32.5 36.3 36.5 32.8 30.3
L4 25.6 27.1 32.5 36.5 36.5 32.8 30.3
L5 25.6 27.1 32.8 36.6 36.6 32.8 30.3
Average 25.52 27.02 32.62 36.46 36.6 32.78 30.3
Deciduous/ semi
deciduous
4.Tectona grandis L1 25.8 27.2 33.2 38.2 35.7 32 30.1
L2 25.8 27.2 33.1 38.4 35.9 32.3 29.5
L3 25.8 27.2 33.4 38.2 35.6 31.9 30.3
L4 25.8 27.3 33.3 38.3 36.1 32.1 30.2
L5 25.8 27.2 33.4 38.3 35.9 32.1 29.5
Average 25.8 27.22 33.28 38.28 35.84 32.08 29.92
5.Azadiracta indica L1 26.1 27.8 33.5 39.7 35.8 32.8 31
L2 25.9 27.8 33.5 39.2 36.2 32.8 30.3
L3 25.9 27.8 33.5 40.1 36.1 33 30.5
L4 25.9 27.9 33.1 39.7 36.2 32.7 30.1
L5 25.9 27.9 33.6 41.2 36.3 32.8 30.5
Average 25.94 27.84 33.44 39.98 36.12 32.82 30.48
6.Phyllanthus
L1 25.8 27.5 34.4 37.4 35.4 31.9 30.6
acidus
L2 25.7 27.3 34.5 37.3 35.6 31.7 30.6
L3 25.8 27.3 34.4 37.9 35.3 31.7 30.6
L4 25.8 27.3 34.3 37.5 35.2 31.9 30.5
L5 25.8 27.3 34.2 37.9 35.6 31.8 30.5
Average 25.78 27.34 34.36 37.6 35.42 31.8 30.56

Table 1.1 Leaf temperature measurements at various temperature

Firstly ANOVA test was carried out within the group. Here we take the three evergreen
varieties. ANOVA tested for Mangifera indica, Syzygium campanulatum and Artocarpus
heterophyllus at 6am. The F value obtained was 22.296>Fc=3.885.The test was rejected.
Then tested at 8am. The F value obtained was F=38>Fc=3.885.The test was rejected. Test

22
done at 10 am. The F value obtained is F=100.8>Fc=3.885. The test was rejected. Then test
done at 12 pm. The F value obtained was F=1.829<Fc=3.885. The test was accepted. Then
tested at 2pm and F value obtained is F=8.274>Fc=3.885. Test was rejected. ANOVA tested
at 4 pm and F value obtained F=0.403<Fc=3.885. Test was accepted. Then tested at 6pm F
value obtained F=3.497<Fc=3.885. The test was accepted.

Time Test result

At 6 am Rejected

At 8 am Rejected

At 10 am Rejected

At 12 pm Accepted

At 2 pm Rejected

At 4 pm Accepted

At 6pm Accepted

Table 1.2 ANOVA test within evergreen

Then ANOVA tested for deciduous plants Tectona grandis, Azadiracta indica and
Phyllanthus acidus at 6am. And the F value obtained is F=11.5>Fc=3.885. The test was
rejected. Then tested at 8am, 10am, 12pm, 2pm, 4pm and 6 pm the value of F obtained were
F=125.8, F=75.44, F=34.467, F=17.43 and F=6.83>Fc=3.885. All the testes are rejected.

Time Test result

At 6 am Rejected

At 8am Rejected

At 10 am Rejected

At 12 pm Rejected

At 2 pm Rejected

At 4 pm Rejected

At 6 pm Rejected

Table 1.3 ANOVA test within deciduous

23
Finally, ANOVA tested for all the six plants under study. ANOVA tested at 6 am, 8am, 9am,
10am, 12pm, 2pm, 4 pm and 6 pm. The F value obtained are F=42.53, F=68.92, F=118.5,
F=85.09, F=3.041, F=33.47 and F=0.712 respectively. Here in the first six cases the null
hypothesis is rejected and in last case null hypothesis is accepted. Null hypothesis accepted
means the temperature mean are equal. And rejected means temperature mean are not equal.

Time Test result

At 6 am Rejected

At 8am Rejected

At 10 am Rejected

At 12 pm Rejected

At 2 pm Rejected

At 4 pm Rejected

At 6pm Accepted

Table 1.4 ANOVA Test between evergreen and deciduous

24
 RESULT

ANOVA was tested within and across the group. In these tests the test across the group the
null hypothesis of majority time interval was rejected it means that the mean temperature
value of each group show difference. That is the mean temperature is not equal across the
group. The leaf temperature of evergreen and deciduous shows significant variations. In the
case of ANOVA test within evergreen groups null hypothesis was rejected in four cases at
6am, 8am, 10am and 2pm. Null hypothesis accepted in three cases at 12pm, 4 pm and 6 pm.
In the case of deciduous null hypothesis was rejected it shows that the mean temperature was
not equal. ANOVA test rejected implies that the leaf temperature of deciduous and evergreen
is significantly different. From the ANOVA we observed that both the evergreen and
deciduous shows difference in their leaf temperature.

By analysing the graph 1.1 the difference were clearly distinguishable. In the graph the
difference between leaf temperature and reference temperaturewas shown and from that we
could understand that the evergreen plants shows more difference than deciduous ones .

Graph-1.1 Leaf temperature graph of selected plants in reference with reference temperature.

25
 DISCUSSION

Vegetation of a region is influenced by the climate. There are several factors that effects
vegetation temperature, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic rate, CO2 concentration etc.
These factors are interrelated with each other. For photosynthesis to take place there requires
an optimum temperature for the normal functioning of photosystems. Above this optimum
temperature the photosystems undergo saturation and affects the photosynthesis. Here the
plants under our study the deciduous as well as evergreen plants when related to the reference
temperature shows difference in their leaf temperature. The temperature difference is high in
the case of evergreen so they may able to show an optimum temperature for normal
functioning of photosystems. As a result of global warming the atmospheric temperature is
alarmingly distorted and in turn leads to alteration of the leaf surface temperature and thereby
plant metabolic activities including photosynthesis.Deciduous ones show almost similar
temperatures with ambient temperatures so its difficult to maintain an optimum temperature
by deciduous species. An optimum temperature is needed for the normal functioning of
photosystems. High temperature cause saturation of photosystems and it effect the
photosynthesis. But in the case of evergreen shows much difference in temperature with
ambient temperature .And they might able to maintain an optimum temperature and their
survival value is more likely to be high.

The photosystems are sensitive to high temperature and it effect photosynthesis. The effect
of temperature on photosynthesis was explained by Pospisil and Tyystjarvi .They observed
that the donor side of PS II is more heat sensitive than the acceptor side of PS II or PS I in
tobacco. And this affects the photosynthesis of the plant.

Li et al (2020) in their paper explained that global warming cause high temperature duration.
Photosynthesis in maize is high temperature sensitive. High temperature decreased leaf area
and photosynthetic rate of unit leaf area and cause limited growth. High temperature
disrupted chloroplast and mitochondrial structure. It also causes photo inhibition of PS2 not
PS1.It damage both oxygen evolving complex located at donor side of PS2 and electron
transfer chain at acceptor site. And effect plant metabolic activities like photosynthesis.

26
 CONCLUSION

In this study we compared leaf temperature of deciduous and evergreen plants. We here
observed that the temperature of evergreen show more difference than references temperature
than deciduous ones. Deciduous ones show almost similar temperatures with ambient
temperatures so itsdifficult to maintain an optimum temperature by deciduous species. An
optimum temperature is needed for the normal functioning of photosystems. High
temperature cause saturation of photosystems and it effect the photosynthesis. But in the case
of evergreen shows much difference in temperature with ambient temperature .And they
might able to maintain an optimum temperature and their survival value is more likely to be
high.

LIMITATIONS

 The sample size is small.

 Seasonal variations are not considered, measurement taken in only one season.
 Time intervals large, 1hour gap in each measurement
 Only few plants considered
 Only one parameter is considered.

27
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