Environment and

Development
A Short Handout

Sagar Sunuwar 7/29/22 [Course title]

UNIT I: INTRODUCTION
 Environment:
Definition:
a. The environment refers to our immediate surroundings in which all living and non-living
components co-exist. It can be used to refer to the social, natural or built environment.
b. Environment is the sum total of conditions that surrounds us at a given point of time and space.
Types of Environment
There are two different types of environment:
a. Physical/Natural/Geographical Environment
b. Built/Man-made Environment

a. Physical/Natural/Geographical Environment
It consists of all components provided by nature and hence can be called as the natural environment.
It is also referred to as the physical environment as it pertains to the physical requirements of life.
These physical or geographic conditions are not dependent on the existence of humans. Sometimes,
humans have no control over the physical conditions of the environment.
It includes natural resources, the earth’s surface, mountains, plains, land, water, deserts, storms,
cyclones, volcanoes, oceans, climatic factors, and so on. It is also used to refer to biological situations
such as complexities associated with plants and animals.
b. Built/Man-Made Environment
This environment is used to refer to the one created by man in order to regulate and monitor certain
environmental conditions. Some address it as a social-cultural environment. It can further be divided
into two types of environments.
1. Inner Environment
2. Outer Environment

1. The Inner Environment

It is a social environment and it exists as long as a particular society exists. It pertains to the
regulations, traditions, organizations and institutions. It involves customs and folkways which is
existent in every human group. It is addressed with names such as non-material culture, social
heritage etc. This heritage is essential for the social life of humans to flourish, it is known to have an
influence on an individual’s life. The altered form of the economic and physical environment –
artificial environment, are seen as two different aspects of the man-made environment.
2. The Outer Environment
Through advancement in the field of science and technology, humans have attempted to alter
conditions of their physical environment. This outer environment is as a result of these modifications
which includes modern infrastructure in cities, our homes and their associated amenities, our modes
of communication and transport, our resorts to conveniences and luxury, different kinds of industry
manufacturing luxurious commodities, electrical appliances and so on which ultimately aims at
civilization and urbanization.
The inner and the outer environments are correlated and hence inseparable.

 Ecology

Ecology is the study of organisms, the environment and how the organisms interact with each other
and their environment. It is studied at various levels, such as organism, population, community,
biosphere, and ecosystem.

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Ecologist’s primary goal is to improve their understanding of life processes, adaptations and habitats,
interactions and biodiversity of organisms.

I. Biotic and Abiotic Factors

The main aim of ecology is to understand the distribution of biotic and abiotic factors of living things
in the environment. The biotic and abiotic factors include the living and non-living factors and their
interaction with the environment.

Biotic components
Biotic components are living factors of an ecosystem. A few examples of biotic components include
bacteria,  animals, birds,  fungi, plants, etc.
Abiotic components
Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors of an ecosystem. These components
could be acquired from the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. A few examples of abiotic
components include sunlight, soil, air, moisture minerals, and more.
Living organisms are grouped into biotic components, whereas non-living components like sunlight,
water, topography are listed under abiotic components.

Types of Ecology
Ecology can be classified into different types. The different types of ecology are given below:

i. Global Ecology
It deals with interactions among earth’s ecosystems, land, atmosphere, and oceans. It helps to
understand the large-scale interactions and their influence on the planet.

ii. Landscape Ecology

It deals with the exchange of energy, materials, organisms, and other products of ecosystems.
Landscape ecology throws light on the role of human impacts on the landscape structures and
functions.

iii. Ecosystem Ecology

It deals with the entire ecosystem, including the study of living and non-living components and their
relationship with the environment. This science research how ecosystems work, their interactions,
etc.

iv. Community Ecology

It deals with how community structure is modified by interactions among living organisms. Ecology
community is made up of two or more populations of different species living in a particular
geographic area.

v. Population Ecology
It deals with factors that alter and impact the genetic composition and the size of the population of
organisms. Ecologists are interested in fluctuations in the size of a population, the growth of a
population and any other interactions with the population.

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In biology, a population can be defined as a set of individuals of the same species living in a given
place at a given time. Births and immigration are the main factors that increase the population and
death and emigration are the main factors that decrease the population.
Population ecology examines the population distribution and density. Population density is the
number of individuals in a given volume or area. This helps in determining whether a particular
species is in endanger or its number is to be controlled and resources to be replenished.

vi. Organismal Ecology

Organismal ecology is the study of an individual organism’s behaviour, morphology, physiology, etc. in
response to environmental challenges. It looks at how individual organisms interact with biotic and
abiotic components. Ecologists research how organisms are adapted to these non-living and living
components of their surroundings.
Individual species are related to various adaptations like physiological adaptation,  morphological
adaptation, and behavioural adaptation.

vii. Molecular Ecology

The study of ecology focuses on the production of proteins and how these proteins affect the
organisms and their environment. This happens at the molecular level.
DNA forms the proteins that interact with each other and the environment. These interactions give
rise to some complex organisms.

Importance of Ecology
The following reasons explain the importance of ecology:

Conservation of Environment
Ecology helps us to understand how our actions affect the environment. It shows the individuals the
extent of damage we cause to the environment.
Lack of understanding of ecology has led to the degradation of land and the environment. It has also
led to the extinction and endangerment of certain species. For eg., dinosaurs, white shark, mammoths,
etc. Thus, the study of the environment and organisms helps us to protect them from any damage and
danger.

Resource Allocation
With the knowledge of ecology, we are able to know which resources are necessary for the survival of
different organisms. Lack of ecological knowledge has led to scarcity and deprivation of these
resources, leading to competition.

Energy Conservation
All organisms require energy for their growth and development. Lack of ecological understanding
leads to the over-exploitation of energy resources such as light, nutrition, and radiation, leading to its
depletion.
Proper knowledge of ecological requirements prevents the unnecessary wastage of energy resources,
thereby, conserving energy for future purposes.

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Eco-Friendliness
Ecology encourages harmonious living within the species and the adoption of a lifestyle that protects
the ecology of life.

 Ecosystem:
An ecosystem is a physically defined environment, made up of two inseparable components:

 The biotope (abiotic): a particular physical environment with specific physical characteristics
such as the climate, temperature, humidity, concentration of nutrients or pH.
 The biocenosis (biotic): a set of living organisms such as animals, plants or micro-organisms,
that are in constant interaction and are, therefore, in a situation of interdependence.

An ecosystem is a chain of interaction between organisms and their environment.

The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands of
miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial
ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem

1. Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in coordination
with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth
and are the major carbon sink.
2. Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands,
savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.
3. Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce.
These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is
tundra type.

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 4. Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days are hot
and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two
types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
2. Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the climatic
conditions prevailing in that particular environment. 
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely: 

 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where the
energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.
Structure of Ecosystem highlighting the biotic and abiotic factors

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem.  Based on nutrition, biotic components can be
categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher
up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary
consumers.
o Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food.
o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be a
carnivore or an omnivore.

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 o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food. 
Tertiary consumers can also be an omnivore.

o Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on

tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain
as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead
and decaying organic matter.  Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in
recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem.  It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc. 

I. Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
It is the sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from organism to organism.
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all plant life. The
plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed on through
successive levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex
predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers
liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the producers.

2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the consumer level
are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and secondary
consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quaternary consumers are
at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary consumers
outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend as the
other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful. These
grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mice, which are comparatively less in number. The
mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex predators
such as the brown snake eagle.
In essence:

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 Grasshopper →Mice→  Cobra → Brown Snake Eagle

3. Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within a single
ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains. In a marine
environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer.
Services provided by Ecosystem:
Without ecosystem services, life on Earth as we know it wouldn’t exist. There are four main categories
of ecosystem services:
a. Provisioning services refer to the products secured by ecosystems. These include:
• Water
• Food (including cattle and seafood)
• Pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, and industrial products
• Energy (sunlight, hydropower, biomass)
b. Regulating services are the ecosystem services that allow the regulation of
ecosystem processes such as:
• Climate regulation (and carbon absorption and storage via the oceans, trees, soil)
• Waste decomposition (one of the most essential microbial process happening in soil)
• Crop pollination (performed by agents such as bees that contribute to the reproduction of
flowering plants)
• Water and air purification and regulation
• Control of pests and diseases
c. Supporting and habitat services refer to the ability of ecosystems to give habitat
for migratory species and to support the viability of gene-pools.This is possible
thanks to:
• Primary reproduction
• Nutrient and seed dispersal
d. Cultural services are the benefits ecosystem services bring to humans. Examples of
these are:
• Inspiration for intellectual (creativity), cultural (entertainment) and spiritual (why) purposes
   – Remember how it feels good to seeing and hearing wild birds
   – Animals, plants and even the funghi kingdom serve as inspiration in theaters, movies…
   – Many people go to natural sites when they want to be alone or reflect about life
• Recreational experiences such as outdoors activities or ecotourism
• Scientific discovery and optimization/efficiency by following examples of the natural world
(biomimicry)

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1.
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve the exchange
of energy.

So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an ecosystem are:

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  Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic level to another.
The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and then to decomposers and
finally back to the environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is the major site
for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various forms for the
utilisation by various organisms.

Everything is Connected in Ecosystem:

When most of us think about ecosystems, we think of the relationships between plants and
animals. But the most fundamental relationship in any ecosystem is between the environment and
everything that lives there. As the environment changes, whatever lives there must adapt to the
changes or be replaced by plants and animals better adapted to the new conditions. Everything is
connected and always changing.

Ecosystems are shaped in fundamental ways by the sun’s energy. But locally, many other factors
are crucial in determining local climate, availability of water and nutrients, and even the shape of
the land. All these determine the challenges and opportunities available to life in that area.
 
Once life is established in an area, it relates not only to the environment but also to the entire local
web of life. Things eat each other and are eaten. Things fight each other for resources and
cooperate for survival. Living things deplete and enrich the soil, are affected by and affect the local
weather, are shaped by local topography and change it.
 
Humans are part of this web of life. While we have a disproportionate impact on other living things
and our environment, we also are profoundly affected by them and we depend on their stability.
We need change to occur slowly enough so we, like everything else, can adapt successfully.

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 Environmental Degradation
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of
resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction;
the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment
perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. As indicated by the I=PAT equation, environmental impact
(I) or degradation is caused by the combination of an already very large and increasing human
population (P), continually increasing economic growth or per capita affluence (A), and the
application of resource-depleting and polluting technology (T).
Types of Environmental Degradation
a. Land and soil degradation: Degradation of soil quality from poor farming practices,
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, leakage from landfills etc.
b. Water degradation: Pollution of water from trash dumped in oceans, illegal dumping,
disposal of large amounts of industrial waste into nearby rivers or lakes etc.
c. Atmospheric degradation: This includes air degradation, particle pollution and
the depletion of the ozone layer.
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 d. Several other kinds of pollution: Apart from land, water and atmospheric degradation,
many other kinds of pollution such as noise pollution, light pollution that are part of
environmental degradation.
Causes of Environmental Degradation
1. Land Disturbance
A more basic cause of environmental degradation is land damage. Numerous weedy plant species, for
example, garlic & mustard, are both foreign and obtrusive.
A rupture in the environmental surroundings provides for them a chance to start growing and
spreading. These plants can assume control over nature, eliminating the local greenery.
The result is a territory with a solitary predominant plant which doesn’t give satisfactory food assets
to all the environmental life. Thus the whole environment can be destroyed because of these invasive
species.
2. Pollution
Pollution, in whatever form, whether it is air, water, land or noise is harmful to the environment.  Air
pollution pollutes the air that we breathe, which causes health issues.
Water pollution degrades the quality of water that we use for drinking purposes. Land
pollution results in the degradation of the earth’s surface as a result of human activities. 
Noise pollution can cause irreparable damage to our ears when exposed to continuous large sounds
like honking of vehicles on a busy road or machines producing large noise in a factory or a mill.
3. Overpopulation
Rapid population growth puts strain on natural resources, which results in the degradation of our
environment. Mortality rate has gone down due to better medical facilities, which has resulted in an
increased lifespan.
More population simply means more demand for food, clothes and shelter. You need more space to
grow food and provide homes to millions of people. This results in deforestation, which is another
factor in environmental degradation.
4. Landfills
Landfills pollute the environment and destroy the beauty of the city. Landfills come within the city due
to the large amount of waste that gets generated by households, industries, factories and hospitals. 
Landfills pose a great risk to the health of the environment and the people who live there. Landfills
produce a foul smell when burned and cause substantial environmental degradation.
5. Deforestation
Deforestation is the cutting down of trees to make way for more homes and industries. Rapid growth
in population and urban sprawl are two of the major causes of deforestation.
Apart from that, the use of forest land for agriculture, animal grazing, harvest for fuelwood and
logging are some of the other causes of deforestation. Deforestation contributes to global warming as
decreased forest size puts carbon back into the environment.
6. Natural Causes
Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and wildfires can totally crush nearby animal and
plant groups to the point where they can no longer survive in those areas.
This can either come to fruition through physical demolition as the result of a specific disaster or by
the long term degradation of assets by the presentation of an obtrusive foreign species to the
environment. The latter frequently happens after tidal waves, when reptiles and bugs are washed
ashore.
Of course, humans aren’t totally to blame for this whole thing. Earth itself causes ecological issues, as
well. While environmental degradation is most normally connected with the things that people do, the
truth of the matter is that the environment is always changing. With or without the effect of human
exercises, a few biological systems degrade to the point where they can’t help the life that is supposed
to live there.
Effects of Environmental Degradation
1. Impact on Human Health

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Human health might be at the receiving end as a result of environmental degradation. Areas exposed
to toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory problems like pneumonia and asthma. Millions of people
are known to have died due to the indirect effects of air pollution.
2. Loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is important for maintaining the balance of the ecosystem in the form of combating
pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting water sources and stabilizing climate. Deforestation, global
warming, overpopulation and pollution are a few of the major causes of loss of biodiversity.
3. Ozone Layer Depletion
The ozone layer is responsible for protecting the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. The presence of
chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere, is causing the ozone layer to
deplete. As it will deplete, it will emit harmful radiation back to the earth.
4. Loss For the Tourism Industry
The deterioration of the environment can be a huge setback for the tourism industry that relies on
tourists for their daily livelihood. Environmental damage in the form of loss of green cover, loss of
biodiversity, huge landfills, increased air and water pollution can be a big turn off for most of the
tourists.
5. Economic Impact
The huge cost that a country may have to borne due to environmental degradation can have a
significant economic impact in terms of restoration of green cover, cleaning up of landfills and
protection of endangered species. The economic impact can also be in terms of the loss of the tourism
industry.

Pollution

Pollution is the presence of a substance that tends to affect directly or indirectly the environment or
changes, degrades or spoils the environment. Pollution can be categorized into air pollution, water
pollution, land pollution and noise pollution. Pollution is the presence of a substance that tends to
affect directly or indirectly the environment or changes, degrades or spoils the environment. Pollution
can be categorized into following types:

1. Air Pollution
2. Water Pollution
3. Soil Pollution
4. Noise Pollution

Air Pollution

An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air is called pollution.
The substances which pollute the air called pollutants. Air pollution causes heart diseases, eye
problem, cancer etc. Apart from it, air carries the bacteria and virus from one place to another place
and transmits different diseases such as tuberculosis, polio, diphtheria and acute respiratory tract
infections.

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to

the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. There
are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases (such as ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane and chlorofluorocarbons), particulates (both organic and inorganic),
and biological molecules. Air pollution may cause diseases, allergies and even death to humans; it may
also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage
the natural environment (for example, climate change, ozone depletion or habitat degradation)

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or built environment (for example, acid rain). Both human activity and natural processes can generate
air pollution.
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases,
including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer. The human health
effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the
cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person
is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics. Indoor air
pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in
the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report. Outdoor air pollution alone
causes 2.1 to 4.21 million deaths annually. Overall, air pollution causes the deaths of around 7 million
people worldwide each year, and is the world's largest single environmental health risk. The scope of
the air pollution crisis is enormous: 90% of the world's population breathes dirty air to some degree.
Although the health consequences are extensive, the way the problem is handled is often haphazard

Causes of air pollution

The following are the main causes of air pollution:

 The dust particles and harmful materials blown out by the wind gets mixed in the air and
pollutes it.
 Natural gases that come from inside the earth's surface also pollutes the air.
 Harmful gases released from different factories, industries and vehicles pollutes the air.
 Gases that comes from burnt materials,rotten and decayed materials also pollutes the air.
 Poisonous gases spreading out in the fields, rooms and houses are also the causes for air
pollution.

Anthropogenic (human-made) sources

These are mostly related to the burning of fuel.

 Stationary sources include smoke stacks of fossil fuel power stations (see for
example environmental impact of the coal industry), manufacturing facilities (factories)
and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices.
In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source of air
pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung.
 Mobile sources include motor vehicles, trains (particularly diesel locomotives and DMUs),
marine vessels and aircraft.
 Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management. Controlled or prescribed
burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration
or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology
and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the
germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.
There are also sources from processes other than combustion

 Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents. These can be

substantial; emissions from these sources was estimated to account for almost half of
pollution from volatile organic compounds in the Los Angeles basin in the 2010s.

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  Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and
may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace
oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen
concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.
 Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.
 Fertilized farmland may be a major source of nitrogen oxides.
Natural source

 Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little vegetation or no vegetation
 Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle
 Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless,
naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is
considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in
buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most
frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
 Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires. During periods of active wildfires, smoke from
uncontrolled biomass combustion can make up almost 75% of all air pollution by
concentration.
 Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic
pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds — to
produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants. Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are
some examples of vegetation that can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production from
these species result in ozone levels up to eight times higher than the low-impact tree
species.
 Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Effects of air pollution

The following are the effects of air pollution:

 Air pollution causes respiratory tract infection (RTI) and asthma.

 It deteriorates the cultural heritage and trees.
 It brings various skin and eye allergy.
 It is the main cause of global warming. that affects all the creatures of the world.

The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing,
coughing, asthma] and worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result
in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency department visits, more hospital admissions
and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally
affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants
depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health
status and genetics. The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen
dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the
most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.
The World Health Organization estimated in 2014 that every year air pollution causes the premature
death of some 7 million people worldwide. Studies published in March 2019 indicated that the
number may be around 8.8 million.

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India has the highest death rate due to air pollution. India also has more deaths from asthma than any
other nation according to the World Health Organization. In December 2013 air pollution was
estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year. There is a positive correlation
between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions. In India in 2014,
it was reported that air pollution by black carbon and ground level ozone had reduced crop yields in
the most affected areas by almost half in 2011 when compared to 1980 levels

Preventive measures of air pollution

The preventive measures of air pollution are as follows:

 The air pollutants should be controlled as the point source by using electrostatic precipitator
or filter in the industries.
 The use of cheap fuel with higher sulphur content should be avoided. Use of disulphurized coal
should be used.
 Alternate sources of energy should be used in place of coal, wood, oil etc.
 Population growth rate should be controlled.
 Strip plantation should be done everywhere on the road side.
 Strict check of car exhaust should be maintained.
 Public awareness programme about the effects of pollution should be managed.

Various pollution control technologies and strategies are available to reduce air pollution. At its most
basic level, land-use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most
developed countries, land-use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used
efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population, as well as to protect the environment.
Because a large share of air pollution is caused by combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the
reduction of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically. Most effective is the switch to clean power
sources such as wind power, solar power, hydro power which don't cause air pollution. Efforts to
reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries have
permissive regulations), expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships,
farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as string trimmers, chainsaws,
and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion
to cleaner fuels or conversion to electric vehicles.

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and transportation.
They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted
into the atmosphere.

 Particulate control
o Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
o Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air
cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing
gas (such as air), using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic
precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the
flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as
dust and smoke from the air stream.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 14
 o Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a
blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust
removal system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters
to remove the dust).
o Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology.
The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue
gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is
brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by
forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to
remove the pollutants.
 Scrubbers
o Baffle spray scrubber
o Cyclonic spray scrubber
o Ejector venturi scrubber
o Mechanically aided scrubber
o Spray tower
o Wet scrubber
 NOx control
o Low NOx burners
o Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
o Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
o NOx scrubbers
o Exhaust gas recirculation
o Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
 VOC abatement
o Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator
o Flares
o Thermal oxidizers
o Catalytic converters
o Biofilters
o Absorption (scrubbing)
o Cryogenic condensers
o Vapor recovery systems
 Acid Gas/SO2 control
o Wet scrubbers
o Dry scrubbers
o Flue-gas desulfurization
 Mercury control
o Sorbent Injection Technology
o Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
o K-Fuel
 Dioxin and furan control
 Miscellaneous associated equipment
o Source capturing systems
o Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

SAGAR SUNUWAR 15
Water Pollution

Degradation in the quality of water is called water pollution. Water covers over the 3/4th part of the
earth’s surface. It is a very important resource for people and the environment. Water pollution affects
drinking water, rivers, lakes and oceans all over the world. In many developing countries, it is usually
a leading cause of death, by people drinking from polluted water sources. Drainage and wastage from
industries, laboratory, hospitals, and homes are the main factors that causes water pollution.

Causes of water pollution

The following are the main causes of water pollution: -

 Natural calamities like flood, landlides, soil erosion, heavy rain, etc. also pollute the water.
 Leakage of agro-chemical from agricultural fields mixing with water resource can also cause
water pollution.
 Throwing of dead bodies of animals in water resources also pollutes water.
 Some human activities like washing of clothes and utensils near wells, ponds, streams, lakes,
etc. also pollutes the water sources.

Effects of water pollution

The following are the main effects of water pollution: -

 Water pollution causes water-borne disease like diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera.
 It also brings various skin allergy if taken the bath with polluted water.
 Acid rain deteriorates cultural heritages.
 It has the negative impact on plants.
 Aquatic animals cannot survive in polluted water.

Preventive measures of water pollution

The following are the main preventive measures of water pollution: -

 The dead bodies of animals and other wastes should not be thrown in water resources.
 People should be made aware of the consequences of water pollution and they should be
encouraged to participate in the pollution control programme.
 Production of domestic waste should be reduced as far as possible and it should not be thrown
in and around the water resources like ponds, rivers, lakes, streams etc.\
 Water pollution due to soil erosion, landslides, and floods should be controlled by minimizing
the activities which cause these problems.

Land Pollution

Land pollution is the degradation of earth's surface. Land pollution makes the quality of soil low. It
directly affects the plants and indirectly to human beings. Human actions have also caused many large
areas of land to lose or reduce their capacity to support life forms and ecosystems. This is known as
land degradation.

Causes of land pollution

SAGAR SUNUWAR 16
The following are the main causes of land pollution: -

 The accumulation of huge amount of bio-degradable and non-biodegradable waste materials

pollutes land.
 Farmers use chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides in their farms to increase production.
However, it adversely can affect land and water resources in and around there.
 Soil is polluted by storing of soluble and insolubledirt's on the earth.
 Trekkers and mountaineers carry different types of packed food and other necessary things
with them. After using them, they throw such materials like plastics, tins and other materials
there. This pollutes some of the tourist areas of rural and city parts of Nepal.
 The solid and liquid substance of the industries such as leather, shoe, battery distillery, paper
and metal destroy the land conditions and it pollutes the soil.

Effects of land pollution

The following are the main effects of land pollution:

 Land pollution kills the useful organisms like an earthworm.

 The soil becomes infertile and not suitable for cultivation.
 Agriculture production will decrease.
 Underground water becomes polluted.
 Bad smell spreads from the polluted land and it causes pollution to the surrounding places.
 It destroys beauty of the environment and the importance of cultural heritages as well.

Preventive measures of land pollution

The following are the preventive measures of land pollution: -

 Bio-degradable materials such as residue of plants, vegetables and other wastes of plants
should be used to make compost.
 Broken machines, vehicles and other materialsshould be re-used.
 Legal provision should be made on the management of solid wastes.
 The solid waste and harmful chemicals from industries, hospitals and laboratories should be
processed and purified to some extent before discharging them to land and water resources.
 The use of plastic bags and other materials made from plastic should be reducedand must be
re-used in some extent.

Noise Pollution

Noise is considered as environmental pollution, even though it is thought to have less damage to
humans than water, air or land pollution. Noise pollution also disturbs the ecosystem. Noise pollution
does not harm the environment as much as air pollution but if affects the health of the person
negatively. If someone has to stay in a very noisy condition for long time, this will affect the hearing
power (nervous system).

Causes of noise pollution

The following are the main causes of noise pollution:

 Noise is created during construction by machinery.

 Market area, densely populated settlement, industrial area produces much sound that causes
noise pollution.
SAGAR SUNUWAR 17
  Industries like cement factory, flour mill, metal industries, etc. produces loud noise.
 Noise-pollution is caused by construction activities like road construction and building
construction.
 Crowd in urban areas and miking causes sound pollution.
 Playing radio, television and various musical instruments in high volume causes sound
pollution.

Effects of noise pollution

The following are the main effects of noise pollution:

 Sitting in a noisy place for long time damages our hearing capacity.
 It causes imbalance in the production of hormones.
 Frustration, depression, hypertension etc. may cause.
 High-stress level and sleep disturbances may happen.
 A loud noise may break the tympanic membrane of the ear and it leads to diseases.

Preventive measures of noise pollution

The following are the preventive measures of noise pollution:

 Green belts should be created where there is the high level of noises.
 The people who work in noisy places should use earplugs.
 Vehicles which produces loud noise should not be operated near the cities.
 High walls can be built around the factory which helps to check the transmission of noise.
 Machine with silencer should be used as far as possible. Regular servicing of machie is also
helpful to check the sund pollution.

Things to remember

 Pollution is the presence of a substance that tends to affect directly or indirectly the
environment or changes, degrades or spoils the environment.
 Pollution can be categorized into air pollution, water pollution, land pollution and noise
pollution.
 An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air is called
pollution.
 The substances which pollute the air called pollutants.
 Air pollution causes heart diseases, eye problem, cancer etc.
 Land pollution is the degradation of earth's surface. Land pollution makes the quality of soil
low.
 Noise pollution does not harm the environment as much as air pollution but if affects the
health of the person negatively. 

 It includes every relationship which established among the people.

 There can be more than one community in a society. Community smaller than society.
 It is a network of social relationships which cannot see or touched.
 common interests and common objectives are not necessary for society.

Water Pollution:
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of
human activities. Water bodies include for example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater.
SAGAR SUNUWAR 18
Water pollution results when contaminants are introduced into the natural environment. For
example, releasing inadequately treated wastewater into natural water bodies can lead
to degradation of aquatic ecosystems. In turn, this can lead to public health problems for people living
downstream. They may use the same polluted river water for drinking or bathing or irrigation. Water
pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and disease, e.g. due to water-borne diseases.
Causes and Sources of Water Pollution:
The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum
of chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While
many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium,
iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration usually determines what is a natural component of water and
what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative
impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.
Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as
well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may
cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some
fish species.
Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity,
temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical
nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases the primary productivity of the ecosystem.
Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such
as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and
other animal populations.
Pathogens

Disease-causing microorganisms are referred to as pathogens. Pathogens can produce waterborne

diseases in either human or animal hosts.[23] Coliform bacteria, which are not an actual cause of
disease, are commonly used as a bacterial indicator of water pollution. Other microorganisms
sometimes found in contaminated surface waters that have caused human health problems include:

 Burkholderia pseudomallei
 Cryptosporidium parvum
 Giardia lamblia
 Salmonella
 Norovirus and other viruses
 Parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type 
High levels of pathogens may result from on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit latrines) or
inadequately treated sewage discharges. Older cities with ageing infrastructure may have leaky
sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some
cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain
storms. Silt (sediment) from sewage discharges also pollutes water bodies.

Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

Organic, inorganic and macroscopic contaminants
Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Many of the chemical substances
are toxic.
A garbage collection boom to reduce pollution in an urban stream in Auckland, New Zealand.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 19
Organic water pollutants include:

 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such
as chloroform
 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and
lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from storm water runoff[28]
 Volatile organic compounds, such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.
 Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids, may fall to the bottom of
reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.
o Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)
o Trichloroethylene
 Perchlorate
 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products
 Drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites, this can
include antidepressant drugs or hormonal medicines such as contraceptive pills.
These molecules can be small and difficult for treatment plants to remove without
expensive upgrades.[29]
Inorganic water pollutants include:

 Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)

 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
 Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates—which are found in storm water
runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use [28] (see nutrient
pollution)
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff)[28][30] and acid mine
drainage
 Secretion of creosote preservative into the aquatic ecosystem
 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land
clearing sites.
Macroscopic pollution – large visible items polluting the water – may be termed "floatables" in an
urban storm water context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items
as:

 Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground,
along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall
into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters.
 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets. See plastic pollution
 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships.

Change in temperature
Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human
influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties
of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and
industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and

SAGAR SUNUWAR 20
alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by
new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters. [32]
Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into
warmer rivers.
Ways to reduce Water Pollution:
Municipal wastewater treatment
In urban areas of developed countries, municipal wastewater (or sewage) is typically treated by
centralized sewage treatment plants. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., with secondary
treatment steps or more advanced treatment) can remove 90 percent or more of the pollutant load in
sewage. Some plants have additional systems to remove nutrients and pathogens, but these more
advanced treatment steps get progressively more expensive.
Nature-based solutions are also being used instead of (or in combination with) centralized treatment
plants.
Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or
more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:

 utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management capacity

throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment
 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very
expensive option).
On-site sanitation and safely managed sanitation
Households or businesses not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic
tank, which pre-treats the wastewater on site and infiltrates it into the soil. Improperly designed or
installed septic systems can cause groundwater pollution.
Globally, about 4.5 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation as of 2017, according to an
estimate by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Lack of access to
sanitation often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the practice of open defecation: during rain events or
floods, the human feces are moved from the ground where they were deposited into surface waters.
Simple pit latrines may also get flooded during rain events. The use of safely managed sanitation
services would prevent this type of water pollution.
Industrial wastewater treatment
Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that is similar to domestic sewage and can be treated
by sewage treatment plants. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of organic
matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or
nutrients such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some industries install a pre-
treatment system to remove some pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then discharge the partially
treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system. Industries generating large volumes of
wastewater typically operate their own treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at
redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process
called pollution prevention.
To remove heat from wastewater generated by power plants or manufacturing plants the following
technologies are used:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection,

and radiation

SAGAR SUNUWAR 21
  cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation or heat
transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic or industrial heating
purposes.

Agricultural wastewater treatment

Regarding non-point sources, sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source
of agricultural pollution in the United States. Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff
flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop
rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers. Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus)
are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer, animal manure, or spraying of municipal or
industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop
residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. Farmers can develop and
implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients and reduce the
potential for nutrient pollution. To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over
pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality.
Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are often point source
dischargers. These facilities are called "concentrated animal feeding operations" or "feedlots" in the
US and are being subject to increasing government regulation. [47][48] Animal slurries are usually treated
by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to
grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. Some
animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a
bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.
Erosion and sediment control from construction sites
Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:

 erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and

 sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.
Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of:

 spill prevention and control plans, and

 specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow
controls and diversion berms.
Control of urban runoff (storm water)
Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of storm water, as well as
reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of storm water management
techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best management practices
for water pollution (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on
improving water quality, and some perform both functions.
Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation of green
roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and
pesticides). Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems,
constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices.
Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by storm water management facilities that absorb the
runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention
basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before
being discharged to a receiving stream.
SAGAR SUNUWAR 22
Noise Pollution:
Noise pollution is the propagation of noise with ranging impacts on the activity of human or animal
life, most of them harmful to a degree. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by
machines, transport, and propagation systems. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise
disintegration or pollution, side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise
pollution in the residential areas. Some of the main sources of noise in residential areas include  loud
music, transportation (traffic, rail, airplanes, etc.), lawn care maintenance, construction, electrical
generators, explosions, and people.
Impacts of Noise Pollution:
Health Impacts: Noise pollution affects both health and behavior. Unwanted sound (noise) can
damage physiological health. Noise pollution is associated with several health conditions, including
cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances,
and other harmful and disturbing effects. According to a 2019 review of the existing literature, noise
pollution was associated with faster cognitive decline.
Wildlife: Sound is the primary way many marine organisms learn about their environment. For
example, many species of marine mammals and fish use sound as their primary means of navigating,
communicating, and foraging. Anthropogenic noise can have a detrimental effect on animals,
increasing the risk of death by changing the delicate balance in predator or prey detection and
avoidance, and interfering with the use of the sounds in communication, especially in relation to
reproduction, and in navigation and echolocation. These effects then may alter more interactions
within a community through indirect ("domino") effects. Acoustic overexposure can lead to
temporary or permanent loss of hearing. Underwater noise pollution due to human activities is also
prevalent in the sea, and given that sound travels faster through water than through air, is a major
source of disruption of marine ecosystems and does significant harm to sea life, including marine
mammals, fish and invertebrates. The principal anthropogenic noise sources come from merchant
ships, naval sonar operations, underwater explosions (nuclear), and seismic exploration by oil and gas
industries. Cargo ships generate high levels of noise due to propellers and diesel engines. This noise
pollution significantly raises the low-frequency ambient noise levels above those caused by wind.
Animals such as whales that depend on sound for communication can be affected by this noise in
various ways. Higher ambient noise levels also cause animals to vocalize more loudly, which is called
the Lombard effect. Researchers have found that humpback whales' song lengths were longer when
low-frequency sonar was active nearby. Noise pollution may have caused the death of certain species
of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar.
Ways to Control Noise Pollution:
The Hierarchy of Controls concept is often used to reduce noise in the environment or the workplace.
Engineering noise controls can be used to reduce noise propagation and protect individuals from
overexposure. When noise controls are not feasible or adequate, individuals can also take steps to
protect themselves from the harmful effects of noise pollution. If people must be around loud sounds,
they can protect their ears with hearing protection (e.g., ear plugs or ear muffs). In recent years, Buy
Quiet programs and initiatives have arisen in an effort to combat occupational noise exposures. These
programs promote the purchase of quieter tools and equipment and encourage manufacturers to
design quieter equipment.
Noise from roadways and other urban factors can be mitigated by urban planning and better design of
roads. Roadway noise can be reduced by the use of noise barriers, limitation of vehicle speeds,
alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation of heavy vehicles, use of traffic controls that smooth
vehicle flow to reduce braking and acceleration, and tire design. An important factor in applying these
strategies is a computer model for roadway noise, that is capable of addressing
local topography, meteorology, traffic operations, and hypothetical mitigation. Costs of building-in

SAGAR SUNUWAR 23
mitigation can be modest, provided these solutions are sought in the planning stage of a roadway
project.
Aircraft noise can be reduced by using quieter jet engines. Altering flight paths and time of day
runway has benefited residents near airports.
Soil Pollution:
Soil contamination or soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the presence
of xenobiotics (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is
typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper disposal of waste. 
Causes of Soil Pollution:
Soil pollution can be caused by the following (non-exhaustive list)

 Microplastics
 Oil spills
 Mining and activities by other heavy industries
 Accidental spills may happen during activities, etc.
 Corrosion of underground storage tanks (including piping used to transmit the contents)
 Acid rain
 Intensive farming
 Agrochemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers
 Petrochemicals
 Industrial accidents
 Road debris
 Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil
 Ammunitions, chemical agents, and other agents of war
 Waste disposal
o Oil and fuel dumping
o Nuclear wastes
o Direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil
o Discharge of sewage
o Landfill and illegal dumping
o Coal ash
o Electronic waste
o Contaminated by rocks containing large amounts of toxic elements.
o Contaminated by Pb due to vehicle exhaust, Cd, and Zn caused by tire wear.
o Contamination by strengthening air pollutants by incineration of fossil raw
materials.
The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and
other heavy metals.
Any activity that leads to other forms of soil degradation (erosion, compaction, etc.) may indirectly
worsen the contamination effects in that soil remediation becomes more tedious.
Ways to Control Soil Pollution:
Cleanup or environmental remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field
measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models (GIS in Environmental
Contamination) for analyzing transport and fate of soil chemicals. Various technologies have been

SAGAR SUNUWAR 24
developed for remediation of oil-contaminated soil and sediments There are several principal
strategies for remediation:

 Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or
sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging of bay
muds containing toxins.
 Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating air pollution)
 Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures sufficiently
high to volatize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapor extraction. Technologies
include ISTD, electrical resistance heating (ERH), and ET-DSP.
 Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Techniques
used in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil
biota with commercially available microflora.
 Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system, with
subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract.
 Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place).
 Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals.
 Mycoremediation, or using fungus to metabolize contaminants and accumulate heavy
metals.
 Remediation of oil contaminated sediments with self-collapsing air microbubbles.
 Surfactant leaching

Desertification:

Desertification is the degradation process by which a fertile land changes itself into a desert by losing
its flora and fauna, this can be caused by drought, deforestation, climate change, human activities or
improper agriculture. Desertification is a process of degradation of the land. It occurs because of man-
made activities and climate change. Desertification takes place when a particular type of biome
converts into a desert biome. 

Causes of Desertification:

2. Overgrazing
3. Deforestation
4. Farming Practices
5. Urbanization and other types of land development
6. Climate Change
7. Stripping the land of resources
8. Natural Disasters

Desertification Impacts

1. Farming becomes difficult or even impossible in the area

2. Flooding chances are more
3. Hunger – because of no farming
4. Poor quality of water
5. Overpopulation
6. Poverty as a result of the above

Deforestation:

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Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land which is then converted to a non-
forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines deforestation as the conversion
of forest to other land uses (regardless of whether it is human-induced).
Deforestation is the process in which large areas of forest lands are cleared for various human
activities. Deforestation has many negative effects on our environment, like loss of habitat for animals
and climate change. The process of deforestation is mainly carried out for monetary gains.
Approximately 18 million acres of forests are cleared each year for various uses causing huge loss to
our environment. The current issue of global warming is majorly related to deforestation. 
Causes of Deforestation:
According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the
overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48%
of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32%; logging is responsible for 14%, and
fuel wood removals make up 5%.
Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions,
the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation,
and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though there
are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas)
have promoted localized forest recovery.
Another cause of deforestation is climate change. 23% of tree cover losses result from wildfires and
climate change increase their frequency and power.
Effects of Deforestation:
1. Climate Imbalance and Climate Change
Deforestation also affects the climate in many ways. Forests are the lungs of our planet. Trees take in
carbon dioxide and release oxygen and water vapor in the air, and that is why tropical rainforests are
extremely humid.
Trees also provide shade that keeps the soil moist. All these are compromised with the lack of trees. It
leads to the imbalance in the atmospheric temperature, drier climate, further making conditions for
the ecology difficult that leads to climate change. 
Several animals and plant species that form the flora and fauna across the world are vastly
accustomed to their natural habitat. Therefore, haphazard clearance of forests would make it very
difficult for them to survive or to shift from their native environment or adapt to new habitats.
When a forest is cut down, the humidity levels come down and cause the remaining plants to dry out.
The drying out tropical rainforests increases fire damage that destroys forests rapidly and harms wild
animals as well as humans. 
Forests and climate are linked intrinsically. Forest loss and degradation are both a cause and an effect
of our changing climate. At the same time, deforestation is self-perpetuating.
Therefore, these occurrences are dangerous and fuel further deforestation. Also, the loss of trees
allows for flooding, soil erosion, desertification, and higher temperatures to occur more rapidly and
exponentially.
Source: Canva

2. Increase in Global Warming

Trees play a major role in controlling global warming. The trees utilize greenhouse gases, restoring
the balance in the atmosphere. With constant deforestation, the ratio of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere has increased, adding to our global warming woes.

3. Increase in Greenhouse Gas Emissions

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Forests help to mitigate carbon dioxide and other toxic greenhouse gas emissions. However, once
they’re cut, burned, or otherwise removed, they become carbon sources.
It’s estimated that deforestation is responsible for around 20 percent of greenhouse gas emissions,
and due to tropical deforestation, 1.5 billion tons of carbon is released every year in the atmosphere.

4. Soil Erosion
Trees are also crucial for our local water cycles as they keep on returning water vapor to the
atmosphere. The soil remains moist as the rainwater percolates within the soil.
The fertile soil is held in place by intricate root structures of many layers of trees. With the  clearance
of tree cover, the land is directly exposed to the sun, making it dry. 
Without trees, erosion often occurs and sweeps the land into nearby rivers and streams. Forests serve
as nature’s water purification plants. Soil erosion makes soil exposed to contaminants that leach into
the water supply, which damages the quality of our drinking water.

5. Floods 
When it rains, trees absorb and store a large amount of water with the help of their roots. When they
are cut down, the flow of water is disrupted, and the soil loses its ability to retain water. It leads to
floods in some areas and droughts in others.

6. Wildlife Extinction & Habitat Loss

Due to the massive felling down of trees, various animal species are lost. They lose their habitat and
also forced to move to a new location. Many of them are even pushed to extinction.
Our world has lost innumerable species of plants and animals in the last couple of decades. A study of
the Brazilian Amazon forecasts that up to 90% of predicted extinctions will occur until the next 40
years.
7. Acidic Oceans
The increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to deforestation and burning fossil fuels
make our oceans more acidic. Since the Industrial Revolution, beaches are already 30 percent more
acidic, posing ocean species and ecosystems at extreme risk.

8. The Decline in Life Quality of People

People in millions all over the world depend on forests for hunting, small-scale agriculture, gathering,
and medicine. Everyday materials we use, such as latex, cork, fruit, nuts, natural oils, and resins are
found in the tropical forests. 
Deforestation disrupts the lives of millions of people. In Southeast Asia, deforestation has contributed
to social conflict and migration. Poor people from Brazil have been lured from their villages to soy
plantations where they are abused and forced at gunpoint to work under inhumane conditions.

9. Food Insecurity in the Future

Deforestation for food may result in food insecurity in the future. Currently, 52% of all the land used
for food production is moderately or severely impacted by soil erosion. In the long term, the lack of
fertile soil can lead to low yields and food insecurity.

10. Loss of Biodiversity

Deforestation leads to a huge loss of biodiversity. About 80% of the global biodiversity is located
in tropical rainforests. Forests not only provide habitats for wildlife but also foster medicinal
conservation.
The forest acts as a critical medium to preserve the wide variety of species. It also destroys the
microbial community that is responsible for the production of clean water, the removal of pollutants
and the recycling of nutrients. 
 Ozone Layer

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The ozone layer  is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation
and contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere.
Formation of Ozone Layer:
Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking
ordinary oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2), splitting them into individual oxygen
atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O 2 to create ozone, O3. The
ozone molecule is unstable and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O 2 and an
individual atom of oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle. Chemically, this can be
described as:
O2 + ℎνuv → 2 O
O + O2 ↔️O3
Ozone Layer Depletion:
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts; the most important are
the hydroxyl radical (OH·), nitric oxide radical (NO·), chlorine radical (Cl·) and bromine radical
(Br·). At present all of these have both natural and man-made sources. These elements are
found in stable organic compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons, which can travel to the
stratosphere without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in
the stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are released from the parent compounds by the action of
ultraviolet light, e.g.
CFCl3 + electromagnetic radiation → Cl· + ·CFCl2
Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that easily reduces to the more stable oxygen form with the
assistance of a catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a variety of catalytic cycles.
In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O3), taking an
oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen molecule (O2). The ClO can react
with a second molecule of ozone, releasing the chlorine atom and yielding two molecules of oxygen.
The chemical shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:

 Cl· + O3 → ClO + O2

A chlorine atom removes an oxygen atom from an ozone molecule to make a ClO molecule
 ClO + O3 → Cl· + 2 O2
This ClO can also remove an oxygen atom from another ozone molecule; the chlorine is free
to repeat this two-step cycle
The overall effect results decrease in the amount of ozone.
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion:
a. Natural Causes of Depletion of the Ozone Layer
The ozone layer has been found to be affected by certain natural phenomena such as Sun-spots and
stratospheric winds. But this has been found to cause not more than 1-2% depletion of the ozone
layer and the effects are also thought to be only temporary.
It is also believed that the major volcanic eruptions (mainly El Chichon in 1983 and Mt. Pinatubo in
1991) has also contributed towards ozone depletion.
b. Man-made Causes of Depletion of the Ozone Layer
Human activities are the main cause of the depletion of the ozone layer. It occurs due to the excessive use
of the man-made chemicals that are bromine and chlorine which release  from the man-made
compounds such as:

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

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  CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)

 Halon

 CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform)

 CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride)

 H CFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons)

 Chlorofluorocarbons

 Methyl bromide

The main cause for the depletion of ozone is determined as excessive release of chlorine and bromine
from man-made compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons,
CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform), CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride), HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons),
hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide are found to have a direct impact on the depletion of
the ozone layer. These are categorized as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
The problem with the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) is that they are not washed back in the form
of rain on the earth and in-fact remain in the atmosphere for quite a long time. With so much stability,
they are transported into the stratosphere.
The emission of ODS accounts for roughly 90% of the total depletion of the ozone layer in the
stratosphere. These gases are carried to the stratosphere layer of the atmosphere where ultraviolet
radiation from the sun breaks them to release chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine (from methyl
bromide and halons).
The chlorine and bromine free radicals react with the ozone molecules and destroy their molecular
structure, thus depleting the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break more than 1, 00,000 molecules
of ozone. Bromine atom is believed to be 40 times more destructive than chlorine molecules.
Consequences of Ozone Layer Depletion:
a. Increase in UV Rayes
Ozone layer is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation
that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the thickness and density of the
layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth's surface.
b. Biological Effects
The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased UV radiation on
human health. Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both positive
(including production of vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts). In
addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to
humans.
c. Effects on Animals
A November 2011 report by scientists at the Institute of Zoology in London found that whales off the
coast of California have shown a sharp rise in sun damage, and these scientists "fear that the thinning
ozone layer is to blame. Apart from whales many other animals such as dogs, cats, sheep and
terrestrial ecosystems also suffer the negative effects of increased UV-B radiations.
d. Effects on Crops
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important
species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the retention

SAGAR SUNUWAR 29
of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its increase. "Despite
mechanisms to reduce or repair the effects of increased ultraviolet radiation, plants have a limited
ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, therefore plant growth can be directly affected by UVB
radiation.
Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion:
Less use of Fuel: by reducing the usage of the fuels and petroleum used in vehicles nowadays we can
help in reducing the ozone layer depletion

Less use of pesticides: pesticides helps in growing your farms and plants but cause harm to the ozone
layer and contribute to ozone layer depletion.

Limited use of harmful chemicals for cleaning: the chemicals used for making cleaning products
results in depletion of the ozone layer.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Can be defined as:

a. The systematic identification and evaluation of the potential impacts (effects) of

proposed projects plans, programmes or legislative actions to the environment.
b. The systematic process of identifying future consequences of a current or proposed
action.
EIA is both an art and a science. Management aspect in EIA is an art, whereas the technical analysis is
based on the scientific principles.
Objectives of EIA
Consequently, the aims and objectives of EIA can be divided into two categories.
• Inform the process of decision-making by identifying the potentially significant environmental
effects and risks of development proposals.
• Promote sustainable development by ensuring that development proposals do not undermine
critical resource and ecological functions or the wellbeing, lifestyle and livelihood of the communities
and peoples who depend on them.
• Protect human health and safety.
• Avoid irreversible changes and serious damages to the environment.
• Safeguard valued resources, natural areas and ecosystem components.
• Enhance the social aspects of the proposal.
Characteristics/Principles used in EIA:
1. Participation:An appropriate and timely access to the process for all interested parties.
2. Transparency:All assessment decisions and their basis should be open and accessible.

3. Certainty:The process and timing of the assessment should be agreed by all participants in advance.
4. Accountability: The decision makers of all parties are responsible for their action and decisions
under the assessment process.
5. Credibility: Assessment is undertaken with professionalism and objectivity.
6. Cost effectiveness: The assessment process and its outcomes will ensure environmental protection
at the least cost to the society.

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7. Flexibility: The assessment process should be able to deal efficiently with any proposal and decision
making situation.
8. Practicality: The information and outputs provided by the assessment process are readily usable in
decision making and planning.
History of EIA
Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing environmental
awareness. In the United States, environmental impact assessments obtained formal status in 1969,
with the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). EIAs have been used
increasingly around the world. The number of environmental assessments filed every year "has vastly
overtaken the number of more rigorous Environmental Impact Statements (EIS). An environmental
assessment is a "mini-EIS designed to provide sufficient information to allow the agency to decide
whether the preparation of a full-blown Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is necessary.
Common Stages in an EIA Process

Typically, the EIA process begins with screening to ensure that time and resources are directed at the
proposals that matter environmentally and end with some form of follow up on the implementation of
the decisions and actions taken as a result of an EIA report. The eight steps of the EIA process are
briefly presented below.
1) Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed project, requires an EIA and
if it requires EIA, then the level of assessment required.
2) Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impact that should be further investigated. This
stage also defines the boundary and time limit of the study.
3) Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts likely environmental and social impact of
the proposed project and evaluates the significance.
4) Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and avoid the potential adverse
environmental consequences of development activities.
5) Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report to the decision-making body
and other interested parties.
6) Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA report and provides
information necessary for the decision-making.
7) Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved or needs further change.
8) Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is commissioned. It checks whether
the impacts of the project do not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the mitigation
measures are in the manner as described in the EIA report.
Some Misconceptions about EIA:

1. “EIA is too complex”

2. “EIA is too expensive”
3. “EIA will be misused to stop development”
4. "We are too poor to afford EIA"
5. "EIA doesn't produce useful results"
6. "EIA is just an add-on and occurs too late to do any good"
7. “EIA delays projects”

UNIT II: GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE

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  Global Warming:
A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the
greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants.
Global Warming is defined as the increase in the earth’s atmospheric and oceanic temperatures,
widely due to an increase in the greenhouse effect resulting from various reasons.
Causes of Global Warming or Climate Change
Natural Causes of Global Warming
1. Forest Fires
Deforestation by nature is another leading cause of global warming. Forest fires emit carbon-filled
smoke into the atmosphere, and new forests’ growth is slow and not stable enough to produce the
much-needed oxygen into the newly, suffocating carbon air. Natural forest fires will eventually run
their course, but left in the ashes are polluting gases that get trapped in the atmosphere.
2. Permafrost
When frozen soil, constituting about 25% of the Northern Hemisphere, increases, it keeps in the
carbon and methane gases. Permafrost is actually leaking carbon into the earth’s atmosphere. While
scientists cannot stop permafrost from emitting these gases, the earth’s melting icecaps at incredibly
fast rates, are cause for concern.
3. Sunspots
According to the Environment Protection Agency (EPA), sunspots are increasing global temperature.
Sunspots restrict the passing of solar plasma, which in turn gives off radiation. Sunspots and solar
flares are powerful and unstoppable.
They can change the energy radiating to earth’s atmosphere, and thus increase climate temperature.
Solar flares, however, have been a naturally occurring event for millions of years.
4. Water Vapor
According to NASA, two-thirds of the gases stuck in the thick blanket is in the form of water vapor.
This hitch in tow effect means rising temperature, rising vapor. The water vapor is unable to escape
and thus results in hotter climate changes.
5. Man’s Best Friend
Our friendly, furry, bizarre, and sometimes extreme pals in the animal kingdom are also to blame, sort
of. While animals also breathe out carbon dioxide and methane, their small contribution is miniscule
compared to humans and their consumption of non-renewable energy. Nature’s animal release of
carbon dioxide, although minor, is still a natural causing factor in releasing more carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere.
Human Causes of Global Warming
1. Man-induced Deforestation
Deforestation is the cutting down of trees and plants to make way for any development activity.
Mother nature taking out an entire forest is one thing, but the man doing it for the use of crop
cultivation, fuel, and other consumption, is another. Each day our forests are bulldozed for the
prospect of farms and factories. Fuel used for wood and charcoal only adds to the polluted gases in the
atmosphere.
The loss of our forests results in a chain reaction where too much carbon is released into the air, with
not enough oxygen to combat it. Deforestation is blamed for the rise in the greenhouse gases present
in the atmosphere by cutting or burning them.
2. Fossil Fuels
Pollution, whether it is vehicular, electrical or industrial, is the main contributor to global warming.
Every day billions of vehicles release various gases into the atmosphere. This causes the Earth to
warm up and increase its average temperature. Electricity causes pollution in many ways. Over 75%
of electricity worldwide is produced by the burning of fossil fuels. Many gases are sent into the air
when fossil fuels are burnt of which main is the carbon dioxide gas.
Fossil fuel like coal is burnt to produce electricity. Coal is the major fuel that is burnt to produce
power. Coal produces around 1.7 times as much carbon dioxide per unit of energy when flamed as
does natural gas and 1.25 times as much as oil.
SAGAR SUNUWAR 32
Industries, on the other hand, release various gases into the water and air. Carbon dioxide, methane
and nitrous oxide are the major greenhouse gases. Different gases have different heat-trapping
capabilities. Some of them trap more heat than carbon dioxide. Methane is much more effective than
carbon dioxide in entrapping heat in the atmosphere. By driving cars, using electricity from coal-fired
plants and heating up our homes from natural gases, we release carbon dioxide and other heat-
trapping gases in the atmosphere.
3. Landfills
When we throw garbage out of our house it goes to landfills. Landfills are those big chunks of garbage
that stink and can be seen in so many places around the world. The garbage is then used by big
recycling companies to make some useful products out from it.
Most of the time that garbage is burnt which releases toxic gases including methane into the
atmosphere. These enormous amounts of toxic greenhouse gases when go into the atmosphere make
global warming worse.
4. Overpopulation
Another cause of global warming is overpopulation. Since carbon dioxide contributes to global
warming, the increase in population makes the problem worse because we breathe out more carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. More people means more demand for food, more carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, more demand for cars and more demand for homes.
More demand for food will lead to more transportation since the movement of goods and services is
done by the transportation sector. More demand for cars means more pollution in the air and more
traffic on the roads which means longer waiting time on the traffic lights and that will result in the
burning of more fuel. More demand for homes means cutting down of plants and trees to make way
for homes, schools, and colleges.
5. Mining
Oil and coal are the two main culprits in producing greenhouse gases. Methane, like carbon dioxide,
creates a thick shield over the atmosphere trapping the sun’s rays. With the continued use of mining
operations, these harmful gases will only increase.
6. Fertilizer Use
The unique thing about fertilizer is that it produces nitrous oxide once it absorbs the soil. Nitrous
oxide is 300 times more dangerous than carbon dioxide. The EPA strongly warns that the farming
industry’s use of fertilizer is one of the leading causes of global warming.
7. Meat Consumption
Due to our Western diet and habits, the raising, grazing, and manufacturing of animal products
contribute greatly to the rise of global temperature.According to research, 51% of the greenhouse
gases: methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide are caused by animal agriculture. If we would stop
ordering juicy cheeseburgers, excessive amounts of carbon dioxide by animals stop emitting the
atmosphere.

 Agro-ecology:

Agro-ecology is the study of ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems. Bringing
ecological principles into agroecosystems could suggest novel management approaches that would
not help in climate change. Agroecology encompasses the relationship between agricultural
production systems and ecological processes. It includes all the techniques that allow agricultural
practices to be more respectful of the environment and its ecological specificities.
 Strengths of natural ecosystems

Natural ecosystems exhibit certain strengths or characteristics. These include the following:

1. Efficiency. Efficient energy flows are characteristic of natural systems. The sun’s energy captured by
green plants is then used by many organisms, as fungi and bacteria decompose organic residues and

SAGAR SUNUWAR 33
are then fed upon by other organisms, which are themselves fed upon by others higher up the food
web. Natural ecosystems also tend to be efficient in capturing and using rainfall and in mobilizing and
cycling nutrients. This helps to keep the ecosystem from ‘running down’ through the excessive loss of
nutrients and at the same time helps maintain the quality of the groundwater and surface waters.
Precipitation tends to enter the porous soil, rather than runoff, providing water to plants as well as
recharge to ground water, slowly releasing water to streams and rivers.

2. Diversity. A great biological diversity, both above ground and in the soil, characterizes many natural
ecosystems in temperate and tropical regions. This provides checks and balances, nutrient availability
to plants, checks on disease outbreaks, etc. For example, competition for resources and specific
antagonisms (such as antibiotic production) from the multitude of soil organisms usually keep soil
borne plant diseases from severely damaging a natural grassland or forest.

3. Self-sufficiency. A consequence of efficiency and diversity is that natural terrestrial ecosystems are
self sufficient— requiring only inputs of sunlight and rainfall.

4. Self-regulation. Because of the great diversity of organisms, outbreaks (or huge population
increases) of diseases or insects that severely damage plants or animals are uncommon. In addition,
plants have a number of defense mechanisms that help protect them from attack.

5. Resiliency. Disturbances occur in all ecosystems— natural or not. The stronger ones are more
resistant to disturbances and are able to bounce back quicker.
Climate change is a complex problem, which, although environmental in nature, touches and has
consequences for all spheres of existence of our people. It impacts on and is impacted by global issues,
including food, trade,
poverty, economic development, population growth, sustainable development and resource
management. Stabilizing the climate is a definitely a huge challenge that requires planning and steps
in the right directions. However, the bigger questions lie in understanding not just the ‘how much’ but
also the ‘how-to’- how to reduce these emissions, how to produce enough healthy food and how to
have clean energy?
Solutions for mitigating climate change come from all arenas in the form of creating new technologies,
renewable clean energies and even changing management practices. Agroecology is one such practice
that deals with the ‘how to’ of mitigation as well as adaptation to climate change. The uncertainty of
raising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, droughts and the emergence of unfamiliar pests and
diseases, demands a form of agriculture that is resilient, and a system of food production that
supports local knowledge transfer and on farm experimentation through building adaptive capacity of
farmers. Majority of climate change mitigation activities are foundations of organic practices. Organic
production systems serve as the best widespread examples of low emissions agriculture. Organic
systems are more resilient than industrial systems in terms of withstanding environmental shocks
and stresses including droughts and flooding. Conventional agriculture releases high carbon
emissions due to the over use of fossil fuels and destroys biodiversity. For agriculture, the idea is for a
shift towards agroecological models of production that allow drastic reductions in the use of fossil
fuels, present great mitigation potential through soil, wildlife and plant rejuvenation, and have the

SAGAR SUNUWAR 34
flexibility as well as diversity required to allow adaptation to changing conditions. In practice,
agriculture can contribute to cooling the planet in three ways: by reducing the use of fossil fuel
(through
reducing and/or completely removing chemical and synthetic fertilizers and pesticide production)
and of fossil fuel powered transport and machinery; by positively effecting biodiversity and by
slowing the release of biotic carbon.
Agroecology can significantly impact climate change positively as it builds: Agro-ecosystem resilience
that would look at consistency and sustainability of yield even and especially so, with the changing
climate; Livelihood resilience that would help in achieving diversification of livelihood options
through poultry, cattle, fish breeding etc...
This also helps in separating agricultural practice from instability and changes in other markets, while
holding assets on the farm and also reduced or completely stops dependency on external inputs.
Smallholder agroecology is not only an effective solution to complex agricultural challenges, but also
an affordable way to increase yields without external inputs outside the farm. Further, it offers low
inputs, low emissions and local control over production decisions, offering Food Sovereignty
alternative to the unsustainable agro-monocultures currently being pushed to address the food
crisis. Several characteristics that are found in local or indigenous breeds will become increasingly
important as climate change alters the environment and affects the produce. Local seeds and crops
have a much better chance of
survival in their local environment with the changing climate conditions. Their protection, along with
the local knowledge is critical to their management and breeding, is extremely crucial to feed us in the
future.
Agro-ecological solutions to climate change are based on a systemic approach, on a deep
understanding of the transformation processes of living beings, which involve political, social and
economic transformations. Multi-functional and diverse agricultural systems and locally diversified
food systems are essential to ensure food security in an era of climate change. A rapid global
transition to such systems is imperative both to mitigate climate change and to ensure food security.

As stated in the “Declaration of Small Food Producers and Civil Society Organisations” at the Second
International Symposium on Agroecology: “Agroecology cannot be understood as a simple set of
production techniques and practices. Agroecology is a lifestyle to our peoples, carried on in harmony
with the language of nature. It represents a paradigm shift in the way we deploy social, political,
productive and economic relations with our territories, to transform the way we produce and
consume food and to restore a socio-cultural reality devastated by industrial food production.
Agroecology generates local knowledge, builds social justice, promotes identity and culture and
strengthens the economic vitality of rural and urban areas.

The following are some adaptive measures for eco-friendly agriculture systems.

The more an agricultural systems can be modelled close to natural ecosystem, it will more adaptive to
the climate change. The natural system which is efficient, diverse, self-regulating, resilient will cope up
better with any unfavorable effects including the adverse impacts of climate change. Thus, the
following are some measures to keep our agriculture system close to natural ecosystem thereby
safeguarding them from unfavorable climate systems.

1. Select crops and varieties resistant to local pests (in addition to other qualities such as yield, taste,
etc.)

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2. Plant perimeter (trap) crops that are more attractive to a particular pest than the economic crop(s)
growing in the middle of the field and can intercept incoming insects.

3. Create field boundaries and zones within fields that are attractive to beneficial insects. This usually
involves planting a mix of flowering plants around or inside fields to provide shelter and food for
beneficial.

4. Use cover crops routinely to provide multiple benefits such as habitat for beneficial insects, adding
N and organic matter to soil, reducing erosion and enhancing water infiltration into the soil, retaining
nutrients in soil, (and much more). It is possible to supply all of the nitrogen to succeeding crops by
growing a vigorous winter legume cover crop such as crimson clover in the south and hairy vetch in
the north.

5. Use rotations that are complex, involve plants of different families and, if at all possible, include sod
crops such as grass/clover hay that remain without soil disturbance for a number of years.

6. Reducing tillage is an important part of an ecological approach to agriculture. Tillage buries

residues, leaving the soil bare and more susceptible to the erosive effects of rainfall, and at the same
time breaks up natural soil aggregates that help infiltration, storage and drainage of precipitation.

7. Add large quantities of organic materials on a regular basis—animal manures, composts, tree
leaves, cover crops, rotation crops that leave large amounts of residues. Soil organic matter and its
management are at the heart of creating healthy soils that have significant internal strengths that
produce healthy plants that have good defense mechanisms.

8. Taking advantage of global transportation systems to delivering surplus food to where it is

needed[69] (though this does not help subsistence farmers unless aid is given).

9. Developing crop varieties with greater drought tolerance.[71]

10. Rainwater storage. For example, according to the International Water Management

Institute, using small planting basins to 'harvest' water in Zimbabwe has been shown to boost
maize yields, whether rainfall is abundant or scarce. And in Niger, they have led to three or
fourfold increases in millet yields.[72]

11. Falling back from crops to wild edible fruits, roots and leaves. Promoting the growth of
forests can provide these backup food supplies, and also provide watershed conservation,
carbon sequestration, and aesthetic value.

 Climate Change
Refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of
human activity. (IPCC TAR, 2001 a)

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 Refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its
variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be
due to natural processes or external forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the
composition of the atmosphere or in land-use. (IPCC TAR, 2001 b)
The climate of a place or region is changed if over an extended period (typically decades or longer)
there is a statistically significant change in measurements of either the mean state or variability of
the climate for that place or region. (Changes in climate may be due to natural processes or to
persistent anthropogenic changes in atmosphere or in land use. Note that the definition of climate
change used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is more restricted,
as it includes only those changes which are attributable directly or indirectly to human activity.)
(UN/ISDR, 2004)

Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect occurs when energy from the sun passes through a planet's atmosphere and
warms its surface, but the atmosphere prevents the heat from returning directly to space, resulting in
a warmer planet. Simply, the greenhouse effect is the way heat is trapped close to Earth's surface by
"greenhouse gases". Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and water
vapor.
A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow plants. The sun’s radiations warm the
plants and the air inside the greenhouse. The heat trapped inside can’t escape out and warms the
greenhouse which is essential for the growth of the plants.
Same is the case in the earth’s atmosphere. During the day the sun heats up the earth’s atmosphere. At
night, when the earth cools down the heat is radiated back into the atmosphere. During this process,
the heat is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. This is what makes the
surface of the earth warmer, that makes the survival of living beings on earth possible.
However, due to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the temperature of the earth has increased
considerably. This has led to several drastic effects.
Greenhouse Gases
“Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared radiations and create a greenhouse effect. For
eg., carbondioxide and chlorofluorocarbons.”

Greenhouse Gases such as carbon dioxide is the primary cause for the Greenhouse Effect
 
The major contributors to the greenhouses gases are factories, automobiles, deforestation, etc. The
increased number of factories and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the
atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations to escape from the earth and increase the
surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming.

Causes of Greenhouse Effect

The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in transportation and to produce
electricity. Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in population, the
SAGAR SUNUWAR 37
utilization of fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere.

Deforestation
Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to the cutting of trees, there is a
considerable increase in the greenhouse gases which increases the earth’s temperature.

Farming
Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.

Industrial Waste and Landfills

The industries and factories produce harmful gases which are released in the atmosphere.
Landfills also release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the greenhouse gases. 

II. Effects of Greenhouse Effect

The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:

Global Warming
It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere. The
main cause for this environmental issue is the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide and methane released by the burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the vehicles, industries
and other human activities.

Depletion of  Ozone Layer

Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. It is found in the upper
regions of the stratosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer results in the entry of the harmful UV
rays to the earth’s surface that might lead to skin cancer and can also change the climate drastically.
The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural greenhouse gases including
chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.

Smog and Air Pollution

Smog is formed by the combination of smoke and fog. It can be caused both by natural means and
man-made activities.
In general, smog is generally formed by the accumulation of more greenhouse gases including
nitrogen and sulfur oxides. The major contributors to the formation of smog are the automobile and
industrial emissions, agricultural fires, natural forest fires and the reaction of these chemicals among
themselves.

Acidification of Water Bodies

Increase in the total amount of greenhouse gases in the air has turned most of the world’s water
bodies acidic. The greenhouse gases mix with the rainwater and fall as acid rain. This leads to the
acidification of water bodies.
Also, the rainwater carries the contaminants along with it and falls into the river, streams and lakes
thereby causing their acidification.

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 Runaway Greenhouse Effect
This phenomenon occurs when the planet absorbs more radiations than it can radiate back. Thus, the
heat lost from the earth’s surface is less and the temperature of the planet keeps rising. Scientists
believe that this phenomenon took place on the surface of Venus billions of years ago.
This phenomenon is believed to have occurred in the following manner:

 A runaway greenhouse effect arises when the temperature of a planet rises to a level of the
boiling point of water. As a result, all the water from the oceans converts into water vapour,
which traps more heat coming from the sun and further increases the planet’s temperature.
This eventually accelerates the greenhouse effect. This is also called the “positive feedback
loop”.
 There is another scenario giving way to the runaway greenhouse effect. Suppose the
temperature rise due to the above causes reaches such a high level that the chemical reactions
begin to occur. These chemical reactions drive carbon dioxide from the rocks into the
atmosphere. This would heat the surface of the planet which would further accelerate the
transfer of carbon dioxide from the rocks to the atmosphere, giving rise to the runaway
greenhouse effect.
In simple words, increasing the greenhouse effect gives rise to a runaway greenhouse effect which
would increase the temperature of the earth to such an extent that no life will exist in the near future.

Difference between Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

Greenhouse Effect Global Warming

What does it mean?

It is the heat which escapes in the space, the The earth gets overheated by greenhouse gases
greenhouse gases block this escaping heat and and fossil fuels leading to the greenhouse effect,
hence it enters the earth which is global warming

Heat/Temperature aspect

It is how the atmosphere retains heat as the Increase in the average annual temperature
result of greenhouse gases globally

Cause

It is caused by atmospheric accumulation of It is caused by an increased concentration of

gases (methane and carbon dioxide, etc) greenhouse gases in the atmosphere majorly
containing some heat emitted by the surface of contributed by human activities such as
earth. deforestation, burning of fossil fuels, etc.
 Climate Change and Mitigation Plan

Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit global warming and its related effects. This is

mainly reductions in human emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) as well as activities that reduce
their concentration in the atmosphere. It is one of the ways to respond to climate change, along
with adaptation. Fossil fuels emit most carbon dioxide(CO2) and greenhouse gas as a whole.
Mitigation – reducing climate change – involves reducing the flow of heat-trapping

SAGAR SUNUWAR 39
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these gases (for
example, the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat, or transport) or enhancing the “sinks”
that accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests, and soil). The goal of
mitigation is to avoid significant human interference with Earth's climate, “stabilize greenhouse
gas levels in a timeframe sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change,
ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to
proceed in a sustainable manner” (from the 2014 report on Mitigation of Climate Change from
the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, page 4.

 The most important challenge is to stop burning coal, oil, and gas and use only clean energy. Some of
the mitigation plans against climate change are mentioned below:

Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration is a process to capture and store CO2 to curb global warming. It is captured
from the air, industries or power stations and stored permanently underground. This promotes:

 Long-term reserve of CO2 or forms of carbon to control temperatures.

 Lowering of amount of GHGs present in air due to combustion of fossil fuels.
3 main steps to Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

Trapping & separating CO2 from other gases à Transporting captured CO2  to storage location à Storing
CO2 far from atmosphere, either in deep ocean or underground.

Types of CO2 Sequestration

Ocean sequestration ●        Through direct injection or fertilization

Geological ●        Natural pore spaces in geological foundation

sequestration ●        Has largest potential

Terrestrial
sequestration ●        Stored in soils and vegetation through decomposed matter &
  photosynthesis respectively.

 Geological sequestration trapping mechanism

Hydrodynamic ●        Trapped as gas under low-permeability cap rock

trapping

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 ●        Combines with solubility trapping

Solubility Trapping ●        Dissolved in oil, water, etc.

  ●        Combines with hydrodynamic trapping

Mineral
carbonation ●        Forms stable compounds like iron, calcium by reacting with
  minerals/organic matter

Sinks

 Carbon sequestration is carried out by pumping carbon into ‘carbon sinks’

 This is an age-old process. Only recently, these sinks are also being used for capturing carbon
for environmental reasons.
 NATURAL SINKS: Oceans, forests, soil, mangroves etc.
 ARTIFICIAL SINKS: Depleted oil reserves, un-mineable mines etc.
 

Carbon sinks (Green and Blue)

GREEN CARBON BLUE CARBON

Removed by tidal marshes, mangroves,

Removed by photosynthesis
seagrass

Stored in marine organisms, plants &

Stored in plants & soil
sediments

Coastal ecosystems accumulate large amounts

Forests accumulate large amounts of carbon
of carbon, 5 times more than forests

Afforestation and reforestation can enhance it Found in all continents except Antarctica

 The Blue Carbon Initiative

 Conservation International (CI), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the
Intergovernmental Oceanic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO has collaborated with governments

SAGAR SUNUWAR 41
 and organisations across the world to develop mechanisms for ensuring coastal Blue Carbon
ecosystems.
 It also comprises:
 Engagement of local, national and international organisations
 Comprehensive methods for carbon accounting
 Incentive mechanism
 Scientific research for climate mitigation
CARBON CREDIT

A Carbon Credit is a tradable permit that certifies the right to emit 1 ton of CO2 or its equivalent

How does this help?

As per gas emissions norms laid down by signatories of the Kyoto Protocol under UNFCCC, companies
have two ways to reduce emissions:

 Reduce GHGs by adopting new technologies.

 Connect with developing countries to set up eco-friendly technology to earn credits. This credit
becomes permit for company to emit GHGs in its own country.’ 
Status of developing nations

 India and China are biggest sellers. Europe biggest buyer.

 China is leading with 73% of market share, whereas India is second at 6%.
 India’s Multi Commodity Exchange (MCX) has become 1st exchange in Asia to trade carbon
credits.
 Carbon Offsetting

 Credits for reductions in greenhouse gases made at another location.

 Sold in metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent.
 Fastest way to achieve deepest reductions in business dealings.
 Provide employment opportunities, community development programmes, training, education.
 Must meet essential quality criteria.
 Cannot be double-counted.
 Climate Change and Local Adaptation

Adaptation – adapting to life in a changing climate – involves adjusting to actual or

expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our risks from the harmful effects of climate
change (like sea-level rise, more intense extreme weather events, or food insecurity). It also
includes making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities associated with climate
change (for example, longer growing seasons or increased yields in some regions).

SAGAR SUNUWAR 42
  Installing protective and/ or resilient technologies and materials in properties that are
prone to flooding
 Changing to heat tolerant tree varieties
 Rainwater storage to deal with more frequent flooding rainfall – Changing to water-
permeable pavements, adding water-buffering vegetation, adding underground storage
tanks, subsidizing household rain barrels
 Reducing paved areas to deal with rainwater and heat
 Adding green roofs to deal with rainwater and heat
 Adding air conditioning in public schools
 Requiring waterfront properties to have higher foundations
 Raising pumps at wastewater treatment plants
 Surveying local vulnerabilities, raising public awareness, and making climate change-
specific planning tools like future flood maps
 Incentivizing lighter-colored roofs to reduce the heat island effect
 Installing devices to prevent seawater from backflowing into storm drains
 Installing better flood defenses, such as sea walls and increased pumping capacity
 Buying out homeowners in flood-prone areas
 Raising street level to prevent flooding

Climate Change and Gender

Climate change and gender is a way to interpret the disparate impacts of climate change on men and
women, based on the social construction of gender roles and relations. Climate change
increases gender inequality, reduces women's ability to be financially independent, and has an overall
negative impact on the social and political rights of women, especially in economies that are heavily
based on agriculture. In many cases, gender inequality means that women are more vulnerable to the
negative effects of climate change. This is due to gender roles, particularly in the developing world,
which means that women are often dependent on the natural environment for subsistence and
income. By further limiting women's already constrained access to physical, social, political, and fiscal
resources, climate change often burdens women more than men and can magnify existing gender
inequality.

Climate change impacts men and women differently due to differences in their traditional roles,
societal expectations, and livelihoods. Women, who make up the majority of the developing world’s
1.4 billion poor, generally have lower incomes, less access to credit and decision making authority,
and limited control over resources, increasing their vulnerability to many climate impacts. The
different societal roles and responsibilities of men and women also present different opportunities for
incorporating clean energy alternatives into their lives. It is crucial to understand these distinctions in
order to successfully integrate climate change into development efforts.

Climate change impacts women in many sectors

 Women produce 60% to 80% of the food in developing countries. More frequent and severe
drought, flooding, and pest damage due to climate change is expected to reduce crop yields.
 In many societies women have the primary responsibility for collecting water and firewood. As
climate change exacerbates resource scarcity, women and girls may have to travel farther to
collect water and firewood, increasing threats to their safety, decreasing productivity in other
areas like farming, and reducing time available for schooling.
 Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and severity of extreme weather events.
During and after natural disasters, a woman’s role as family caregiver is intensified, potentially

SAGAR SUNUWAR 43
 leading to exhaustion and illness. Studies have also shown an increase in levels of domestic and
sexual violence following disasters.
 Women are already more vulnerable to undernutrition and have less access to medical services
than men; climate change can exacerbate this situation. Changing temperatures alter vectors
for diseases like malaria, higher sea-surface temperatures are correlated with cholera
epidemics, and more frequent droughts and floods will worsen sanitation and hygiene.
 The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concludes that there is 'robust evidence' for an increase of
gender inequalities as a result of weather events as well as for the perpetuation of differential
vulnerabilities. The increase of inequalities due to climate change can have several reasons. For
example, girls often face more serious risks than boys due to unequal distribution of scarce
resources within the household. This effect is amplified by climate change induced resource
scarcity. Furthermore, climate change often results in an increase of out-migration of men. This
leaves women with an increased work-load at home, resulting in a feminization of
responsibilities.[1] Climate change is predicted to increase frequency and magnitude of natural
hazards such as extreme heat. During and after these hazards especially women are burdened
with increased care work for children, the sick and old, adding furthermore to already
significant amount of household duties. Women also tend to donate their food in times of food
scarcity, leaving them more vulnerable to health, social and psychological damages.
Climate Change and Ethnic Minorities:
The close relationship of some indigenous peoples and minorities with their natural environments
makes them especially sensitive to the effects of global warming. In some cases, peoples’ ways of life
and even their very existence are being threatened by climate change, and by the rapidly increasing
cultivation of biofuels, which are being touted as part of the ‘solution’.
Indigenous people are known as people who inherited a land first and have a close connection with
that land. For example, the native people of Napa County include the Onastis (Wappo), Miwok, and
Hokan (Pomo) people. The Napa Valley is known to be one of the  longest inhabited areas of land in
Northern America. As the Europeans invaded northern America, they spread disease and pushed the
native people out of their land. Native people have faced many difficulties the European invaders have
inflicted upon them, and continue to, due to how poorly we have been treating their land.

Climate Change affects minorities and indigenous people in many ways. Often, minorities live in areas
that are more prone to destruction due to Climate Change. Governments have discriminated against
minorities by making it difficult for them to live safely in their environment. They often live in poverty,
in parts of cities that are not well taken care of, compared to other parts of cities where wealthier
people live in luxury. As an example, after Hurricane Katrina hit, there were major floods that
followed. New Orleans, Louisiana, received 10 inches of rain before the hurricane even surged over
the city, leaving 80% of the city underwater after it hit, according to Encyclopedia Britannica. In a
briefing written by Rachel Baird for the Minority Rights Group International, she wrote, “A Brookings
Institution report on the disaster found that ‘those areas hit hardest by the flood were
disproportionately non-white. Overall, Blacks and other minority residents made up 58 percent of
those whose neighborhoods were flooded, though they encompassed just 45 percent of the
metropolitan population.’” It is not a coincidence that non-white communities were of those hit the
hardest by the hurricane, yet people fail to realize it as an issue, including their government, that
should be doing everything in its power to keep them safe.

Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture:

Agricultural systems are currently undergoing rapid shifts owing to socioeconomic development,
technological change, population growth, economic opportunity, evolving demand for commodities,
and the need for sustainability amid global environmental change.1 It is not sufficient to maintain
current harvest levels; rather, there is a need to rapidly increase production in light of a population

SAGAR SUNUWAR 44
growing to nearly 10 billion by mid-century and to more than 11 billion by 2100 (FAO, 2016; UN,
2017; Popkin et al., 2012). Current and future agricultural systems are additionally burdened by
human-caused climate change, the result of accumulating greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions,
ecological destruction, and land use changes that have altered the chemical composition of Earth’s
atmosphere and trapped energy in the Earth system (IPCC, 2013; Porter et al., 2014).
Climate change impacts on agriculture must be understood in the context of the intertwined systems
that affect food security and agricultural trade, including biological, socioeconomic, and political
processes. Rapid gains in socioeconomic development around the world may give the mistaken
impression that climate change is not detrimental, but in many of these regions climate change
impacts act as an additional burden holding back the pace of development. In addition to the
biological impact of changing climate conditions on farms, future agricultural production will be
affected by economic and policy incentives across a wide variety of stakeholders and actors both
locally and interacting through global markets (Valdivia et al., 2015).
Direct Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture:
Direct impacts of climate, including atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations, on agricultural
systems include effects on plant development, grain productivity, and mortality. Notably, direct
climate impacts include both damage and benefits as well as opportunities for farm-level adaptations.
In assessing vulnerabilities and opportunities of farming systems, it is also important to recognize that
C3 plants (e.g., wheat, rice, soy, potato, and peanut) generally react more strongly than C4 plants (e.g.,
maize, sugarcane, sorghum) to both increases in temperature and CO2. Characteristics of direct
climate impacts have been investigated using a variety of chamber and field experiment approaches,
although published studies have focused more on mid-latitude and high-input cereals while direct
impacts on tropical cropping systems, perennials, fruits, and vegetables have persistent uncertainties
(Porter et al., 2014; Long et al., 2006; Tubiello et al., 2007a,b; Ainsworth et al., 2008; Boote et al.,
2010). Interactions between soils and climate changes are crucial, as the full benefits of higher CO2
cannot be achieved by farms experiencing nitrogen stress. Panel regressions and other statistical
methods have also identified statistically significant climate signals within reported yields (Lobell and
Burke, 2008; Schlenker and Roberts, 2009), with resulting models suggesting that climate changes
have already led to decreases in wheat and maize production since 1980 (Lobell et al., 2011).
Biophysical
Climate driver mechanism Overview of direct impact on agriculture

Increased Accelerated Warmer temperatures cause plants to develop at

mean maturity an accelerated pace, leading to an earlier
temperatures maturity before sufficient biomass has been
gained and therefore reducing overall yields.
Increased Shifts in suitable Warmer temperatures generally extend the
mean growing seasons growing season in areas that are currently limited
temperatures by cold temperatures while restricting growing
seasons in regions limited by high temperatures.
Extreme Heat stress, Extremely hot temperatures cause plants to
temperatures leaf loss, and reduce photosynthetic activity, with prolonged
mortality exposure leading to leaf loss and potentially full
crop failure (Asseng et al., 2015).
Heat wave Pollen sterility The impacts of heat waves depend on a plant’s
during flowering developmental stage; heat waves during
stage flowering (anthesis) can cause pollen to be
sterile, leading to reproductive failure and low
grain numbers.
Elevated CO2 Enhanced Higher CO2 concentrations benefit photo-
primary synthesis, resulting in higher productivity

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 productivity (Rosenzweig et al., 2014).
Elevated CO2 More efficient Plants in high-CO2 environments have more
water use efficient stomatal gas exchanges, which reduce
transpiration and improve water retention
(Deryng et al., 2016).
Elevated CO2 Reduction in Yield from crops in CO2-rich conditions contains
nutritional a lower percentage of key nutrients including
content protein, iron, and zinc (Mü ller et al., 2014;
Myers et al., 2014; Medek et al., 2017).
Decreased Increase in Excessive transpiration demand causes plants to
precipitation water stress and reduce gas exchanges for photosynthesis,
mortality conserving water at the expense of primary
production. Plant water loss can lead to wilting
and mortality.
Increased Reduction in Areas that regularly experience drought
precipitation water stress conditions likely stand to benefit should mean
precipitation increase.
More severe Plant damage High winds and hail can knock down, break, or
storms uproot crops, leading to potentially severe losses.

Indirect affect of Climate Change on Agriculture

Climate change impacts on other biophysical systems are likely to have indirect impacts on
agricultural systems. These include the following:
 Sea-level rise: Glacial melting and thermal expansion of the oceans could lead to sea-level rise of up
to a meter or more by 2100 (Church et al., 2013), potentially inundating low-lying coastal regions with
saltwater in a process exacerbated by extreme storms. Mega-deltas (e.g., the Ganges-Brahmaputra in
Bangladesh, Nile in Egypt, or Mekong/Red in Vietnam) are particularly vulnerable and contain some
of the world’s most productive breadbaskets as well as high densities of smallholder farmers.
 Inland flooding: Inland freshwater flooding may also be exacerbated by mean precipitation
increases, more severe storms, and a higher proportion of precipitation falling as rain rather than
snow (Dettinger and Cayan, 1995). Higher rainfall totals could also increase the occurrence of
waterlogging and field conditions that are too wet for the use of heavy farm equipment.
 Water resources: Water resources for irrigation are projected to face increased stress owing to long-
term reductions in mountain snowpack that reduce the natural reservoir capacity of a river basin for
irrigation; this effect could be particularly challenging for semi-arid areas irrigated by surface water in
snow-fed river systems (Dö ll, 2002; Mote et al., 2005).
 Pests: Shifting climate zones will also affect agro-ecological zones (Fischer et al., 2002) and alter the
potential extent and timing of damaging agricultural pests, diseases, and weeds (Ziska and Runion,
2006; Rosenzweig and Tubiello, 2007).
Direct and indirect agro-climatic effects can be long-term and widespread (e.g., elevated
temperatures, CO2 effects, water resources supply) or temporally and regionally acute (e.g., drought,
heat wave, coastal and inland flooding, pests). Climate change may also indirectly affect agriculture
and food systems through economic and political disruption. Prominent examples include a consistent
and extended decline in sea ice that would allow for transportation of agricultural commodities
through the Northwest Passage, more frequent disruption of major trading ports due to sea-level rise
and more intense hurricanes, and the potential for social unrest and migration following extended
agricultural droughts.
Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change
Adapting to climate change entails taking the right measures to reduce the negative effects of climate
change (or exploit the positive ones) by making the appropriate adjustments and changes. The

SAGAR SUNUWAR 46
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) defines adaptation as adjustments in natural or
human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or effects, which moderates harm or
exploits beneficial opportunities. It also refers to actions that people, countries, and societies take to
adjust to climate change that has occurred. Adaptation has three possible objectives: to reduce exposure
to the risk of damage; to develop the capacity to cope with unavoidable damages; and to take advantage
of new opportunities.
1.0 Crop adaptation strategies
1.1 Planting of drought resistant varieties of crops: Emphasis on more drought resistant crops in drought-
prone areas could help in reducing vulnerability to climate change.
1.2 Crop diversification: Diversification towards high value crops is feasible in the medium to long term.
Crop diversity is a high priority adaptation measure in both irrigated and non-irrigated areas.
1.3 Change in cropping pattern and calendar of planting: Climate change adversely affects crop
production through long-term alterations in rainfall resulting in changes in cropping pattern and calendar
of operations.
1.4 Mixed cropping: Mixed cropping involves growing two or more crops in proximity in the same field.
The system is commonly practised in Tanzania where cereals (maize, sorghum), legumes (beans) and
nuts (groundnuts) are grown together. The advantages of mixing crops with varying attributes are in
terms of maturity period (e.g. maize and beans), drought tolerance (maize and sorghum), input
requirements (cereals and legumes) and end users of the product (e.g. maize as food and sunflower for
cash). A research conducted by Mendelsohn et al. (2000) on analyzing adaptations made in Africa
reveals that in all countries apart from Cameroon and South Africa, the planting of different varieties of
the same crop is considered to be one of the most important adaptations. Different planting dates are also
considered an important adaptation in Egypt, Kenya and Senegal.
1.5 Improved irrigation efficiency: Success of climate change adaptation depends on availability of fresh
water in drought-prone areas. It should be emphasized that most adaptation methods provide benefits
even with the lower end of climate change scenarios, such as improved irrigation efficiency. As water
becomes a limiting factor, improved irrigation efficiency will become an important adaptation tool,
especially in dry season, because irrigation practices the for dry area are water intensive. Climate change
is expected to result in decreased fresh water availability (surface and groundwater) and reduced soil
moisture during the dry season, while the crop water demand is expected to increase because of
increased evapo-transpiration caused by climate change and the continuous introduction of high-yielding
varieties and intensive agriculture (Selvaraju et al., 2006). In Egypt, Kenya, and South Africa, significant
numbers of farmers have adapted by increased use of irrigation. In Gambia, South Africa, and Sudan,
farmers employ such adaptation measures as irrigation water transfer, water harvesting and storage to
cushion the effects of rainfall variability (Nkomo et al., 2005 and Osman et al. (2005). As temperature
increases, farmers tend to irrigate more frequently. Irrigation is clearly an adaptation strategy to
warming. When precipitation increases, they tend to irrigate less often and resort to natural rainfall more
often. Farms in the deserts reduce irrigation when temperature increases. Similarly, when precipitation
increases, farms close to the deserts increase irrigation.
1.6 Adopting soil conservation measures that conserve soil moisture: Soil conservation techniques are
increasingly practiced in Burkina Faso, Kenya, Senegal, and Niger. A study carried out by Lema and
Majule (2009) in Manyoni District of Tanzania revealed that farmers in Kamenyanga and Kintinku
ensure proper timing of different farming activities, burying of crop residues to replenish soil fertility,
burning crop residues to enhance quick release of nutrients and allowing livestock to graze on farmlands
after harvesting crops so as to improve soil organic matter. In Tanzania, farmers used contour ridges as a
strategy to minimize soil erosion to encourage better root penetration and enhance moisture conservation
(Lema and Majule, 2009). In Senegal and Burkina Faso, local farmers have improved their adaptive
capacity by using traditional pruning and fertilizing techniques to double tree densities in semi-arid
areas. These help in holding soils together and reversing desertification. Nyong et al. (2007) noted that
local farmers in the Sahel conserve carbon in soils through the use of zero tilling practices in cultivation,
mulching and other soil management techniques. Natural mulches moderate soil temperatures and
extremes, suppress diseases and harmful pests, and conserve soil moisture. Before the advent of

SAGAR SUNUWAR 47
 chemical fertilizers, local farmers largely depended on organic farming, which also is capable of
reducing GHG emissions.
1.7 Planting of trees (afforestation) and agroforestry: Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree
seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping purposes. It differs from the
transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture, and from the lower cost but slower and less reliable
distribution of tree seeds. In silviculture the activity is known as reforestation, or afforestation,
depending on whether the area being planted has or has not recently been forested. It involves planting
seedlings over an area of land where the forest has been harvested or damaged by fire or disease or
insects. Rural farmers in most of the Africa countries have been planting trees as a way of adapting to
the effect of climate change. Agroforestry is a rational land-use planning system that tries to find some
balance in the raising of food crops and forests (Adesina et al., 1999). A practice similar to this has been
described in a part of south western part of Nigeria to raise shade tolerant crops, such as Dioscorea spp,
and cocoyam in essentially a permanent forest setting (Adesina, 1988). In addition to the fact that
agroforestry techniques can be perfected to cope with the new conditions that are anticipated under a
drier condition and a higher population density, they lead to an increase in the amount of organic matter
in the soil thereby improving agricultural productivity and reducing the pressure exerted on forests.
Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of the United
Nations that is dedicated in providing the world with objective and scientific information relevant to
understand the scientific basis of the risk of human-induced climate change, its natural, political,
and economic impacts and risks, and possible response options.
The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
The IPCC has adopted and published "Principles Governing IPCC Work", [7] which states that the IPCC
will assess:

 the risk of human-induced climate change,

 its potential impacts, and
 possible options for prevention.

Three Working Group of IPCC:

 Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change.
 Working Group II: Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to climate
change, consequences, and adaptation options.
 Working Group III: Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and otherwise
mitigating climate change.

Assessment Reports Prepared by IPCC

The IPCC has published five comprehensive assessment reports reviewing the latest climate science,
as well as a number of special reports on particular topics. These reports are prepared by teams of
relevant researchers selected by the Bureau from government nominations. Expert reviewers from a
wide range of governments, IPCC observer organizations and other organizations are invited at
different stages to comment on various aspects of the drafts.

Process in the preparation of the Reports:

There are generally three stages in the review process:[28]

 Expert review (6–8 weeks)

 Government/expert review
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  Government review of:
o Summaries for Policymakers
o Overview Chapters
o Synthesis Report

 UNFCC
 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international
environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Jenerio from 3 to 14 June 1992.
The objective of the treaty is to stabilize Greenhouse Gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere at
a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.

 The UNFCCC was opened for signature on May 9, 1992 after an inter-governmental negotiating
committee produced the text of the framework convention as a report following its meeting in New
York from 30 April to 9 May 1992. It entered into force on 21 March 1994. As of March 2014,
UNFCCC has 196 parties. The treaty is aimed at stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system-commonly believed to be around 20 C above the pre-industrial global average temperature.

 Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of the
GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system. Scientific
analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change, but deciding which impacts are
dangerous requires value judgment.

 The UNFCCC has the ultimate objective of preventing dangerous anthropogenic (i. e. human)
interference of the climate system. As is stated in the article 2 of the convention, this requires that
Greenhouse Gas (GHGs) concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems
can adopt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened and economic development
can proceed in a sustainable fashion.

UNIT III: POPULATION – ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS

What are Natural Resources?

Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet) independent of human
actions.
Natural resources are resources that exist without any actions of humankind.These are the resources
that are found in the environment and are developed without the intervention of humans. Common
examples of natural resources include air, sunlight, water, soil, stone, plants, animals and fossil fuels.
Natural resources are naturally occurring materials that are useful to man or could be useful under
conceivable technological, economic or social circumstances or supplies drawn from the earth,

SAGAR SUNUWAR 49
supplies such as food, building and clothing materials, fertilizers, metals, water and geothermal
power. For a long time, natural resources were the domain of the natural sciences.
Different Cultural Views about Nature:
 Our view of nature and the environment are culturally bound
Western View of the Environment
Man as superior to other creatures.
God gave man dominion over plants and animals
Garden of Eden story
Implicit theory of stewardship but freedom to use nature to improve life
Non-Western View of the Environment
Man seen as part of nature, not separate from it or superior to it
Nature viewed in spiritual terms
Man shouldn’t seek to control nature but work with it, preserve it
Gods or spirits may inhabit nature
See change a cyclical rather than linear
Social responsibilities more important
Educated elites frequently share a more western view of the environment
Hindus worship various natural components as God, such as Surya Deva (Sun), Chandra
Deva (Moon), Jal Devata or Barun (water), Pipal tree, Tulsi (as the lord Bishnu), etc.
Various creatures are also worshipped in the Hindu tradition: Nag Devata (snake), Gau
Mata (cow as mother).
There is respectable place for various animals: dog, crow, ox, cow etc are treated with
respect in various Hindu festivals.

What are the Different Types of Natural Resources?

Based on the availability are two types of natural resources:

1. Renewable: resources that are available in infinite quantity and can be used repeatedly are
called renewable resources. Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these
resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available and their quantities are
not noticeably affected by human consumption. Though many renewable resources do not
have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use.
Resources from a human use perspective are classified as renewable so long as the rate of
replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption. They replenish easily
compared to non-renewable resources. Example: Forest, wind, water, etc.
2. Non-Renewable: resources that are limited in abundance due to their non-renewable nature
and whose availability may run out in the future are called non-renewable resources. on-
renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment. Minerals
are the most common resource included in this category. From the human perspective,
resources are non-renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of
replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category
because their rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions of years), meaning they
are considered non-renewable. Some resources naturally deplete in amount without human
interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, which
naturally decay into heavy metals. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling
them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. Once they are completely used they take
millions of years to replenish.Examples include fossil fuels, minerals, etc.Difference between
Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

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 Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

It can be renewed as it is available in Once completely consumed, it cannot be renewed

infinite quantity due to limited stock

Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature

Low cost and environment-friendly High cost and less environment-friendly

Replenish quickly Replenish slowly or do not replenish naturally at all

The 5 Most Important Natural Resources are:

1. Air: Clean air is important for all the plants, animals, humans to survive on this planet. So, it is
necessary to take measures to reduce air pollution.
2. Water: 70% of the Earth is covered in water and only 2 % of that is freshwater. Initiative to
educate and regulate the use of water should be taken.
3. Soil: Soil is composed of various particles and nutrients. It helps plants grow.
4. Iron: It is made from silica and is used to build strong weapons, transportation and buildings
5. Forests: As the population increases, the demand for housing and construction projects also
increases. Forests provide clean air and preserve the ecology of the world.

Population, Environmental Impact and Natural Resources:

The impact (I) of any population can be expressed as a product of three characteristics: the
population's size (P), its affluence or per-capita consumption (A), and the environmental damage (T)
inflicted by the technologies used to supply each unit of consumption (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1990,
Ehrlich and Holdren 1971, Holdren and Ehrlich 1974).

I = PAT

These factors are not independent. For example, T varies as a nonlinear function of P, A, and rates of
change in both of these. This dependence is evident in the influence of population density and
economic activity on the choice of local and regional energy supply technologies (Holdren 1991a) and
on land management practices. Per-capita impact is generally higher in very poor as well as in affluent
societies.

In the I=PAT equation, the variable P represents the population of an area, such as the world. Since the
rise of industrial societies, human population has been increasing exponentially. This has
caused Thomas Malthus, Paul Ehrlich and many others to postulate that this growth would continue
until checked by widespread hunger and famine
The United Nations project that world population will increase from 7.7 billion today (2019) to 9.8
billion in 2050 and about 11.2 billion in 2100. These projections take into consideration that
population growth has slowed in recent years as women are having fewer children. This phenomenon
is the result of demographic transition all over the world. Although the UN projects that human
population may stabilize at around 11.2 billion in 2100, the I=PAT equation will continue to be
relevant for the increasing human impact on the environment in the short to mid-term future.
Environmental impacts of population
Increased population increases humans' environmental impact in many ways, which include but are
not limited to:
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  Increased land use - Results in habitat loss for other species
 Increased resource use - Results in changes in land cover
 Increased pollution - Can cause sickness and damages ecosystems
 Increased climate change
 Increased biodiversity loss
Affluence
The variable A in the I=PAT equation stands for affluence. It represents the average consumption of
each person in the population. As the consumption of each person increases, the total environmental
impact increases as well. A common proxy for measuring consumption is through GDP per capita.
While GDP per capita measures production, it is often assumed that consumption increases when
production increases. GDP per capita has been rising steadily over the last few centuries and is driving
up human impact in the I=PAT equation.
Environmental impacts of affluence
Increased consumption significantly increases human environmental impact. This is because each
product consumed has wide-ranging effects on the environment. For example, the construction of a
car has the following environmental impacts:

 605,664 gallons of water for parts and tires;

 682 lbs. of pollution at a mine for the lead battery;
 2178 lbs. of discharge into water supply for the 22 lbs. of copper contained in the car.
The more cars per capita, the greater the impact. Ecological impacts of each product are far-reaching;
increases in consumption quickly result in large impacts on the environment through direct and
indirect sources.
Technology
The T variable in the I=PAT equation represents how resource intensive the production of affluence
is; how much environmental impact is involved in creating, transporting and disposing of the goods,
services and amenities used. Improvements in efficiency can reduce resource intensiveness, reducing
the T multiplier. Since technology can affect environmental impact in many different ways, the unit
for T is often tailored for the situation to which I=PAT is being applied. For example, for a situation
where the human impact on climate change is being measured, an appropriate unit for T might be
greenhouse gas emissions per unit of GDP.
Environmental impacts of technology
Increases in efficiency from technologies can reduce specific environmental impacts, but due to
increasing prosperity these technologies yield for the people and businesses that adopt them,
technologies actually end up generating greater overall growth into the resources that sustain us.

Through out history, and especially during the twentieth century, environmental degradation has
primarily been a product of our efforts to secure improved standards of food, clothing, shelter,
comfort, and recreation for growing numbers of people. The magnitude of the threat to the ecosystem
is linked to human population size and resource use per person. Resource use, waste production and
environmental degradation are accelerated by population growth. They are further exacerbated by
consumption habits, certain technological developments, and particular patterns of social
organization and resource management.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 52
As human numbers further increase, the potential for irreversible changes of far reaching magnitude
also increases. Indicators of severe environmental stress include the growing loss of biodiversity,
increasing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing deforestation worldwide, stratospheric ozone
depletion, acid rain, loss of topsoil, and shortages of water, food, and fuel-wood in many parts of the
world.
While both developed and developing countries have contributed to global environmental problems,
developed countries with 85% percent of the gross world product and 23% of its population account
for the largest part of mineral and fossil-fuel consumption, resulting in significant environmental
impacts. With current technologies, present levels of consumption by the developed world are likely
to lead to serious negative consequences for all countries. This is especially apparent with the
increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide and trace gases that have accompanied industrialization,
which have the potential for changing global climate and raising sea level.
In both rich and poor countries, local environmental problems arise from direct pollution from energy
use and other industrial activities, inappropriate agricultural practices, population concentration,
inadequate environmental management, and inattention to environmental goals. When current
economic production has been the overriding priority and inadequate attention has been given to
environmental protection, local environmental damage has led to serious negative impacts on health
and major impediments to future economic growth. Restoring the environment, even where still
possible, is far more expensive and time consuming than managing it wisely in the first place; even
rich countries have difficulty in affording extensive environmental remediation efforts.
The relationships between human population, economic development, and the natural environment
are complex. Examination of local and regional case studies reveals the influence and interaction of
many variables. For example, environmental and economic impacts vary with population composition
and distribution, and with rural-urban and international migrations. Furthermore, poverty and lack of
economic opportunities stimulate faster population growth and increase incentives for environmental
degradation by encouraging exploitation of marginal resources.
Both developed and developing countries face a great dilemma in reorienting their productive
activities in the direction of a more harmonious interaction with nature. This challenge is accentuated
by the uneven stages of development. If all people of the world consumed fossil fuels and other
natural resources at the rate now characteristic of developed countries (and with current
technologies), this would greatly intensify our already unsustainable demands on the biosphere. Yet
development is a legitimate expectation of less developed and transitional countries. This can be
achieved, provided we are willing to undertake the requisite social change. Given time, political will,
and intelligent use of science and technology, human ingenuity can remove many constraints on
improving human welfare worldwide, finding substitutes for wasteful practices, and protecting the
natural environment.
Debates on Population Growth and Resource Scarcity:
Concerns about the balance between population and natural resources have existed ever since the
beginning of modern industrial expansion when, in 1798, they were articulately formulated by T. R.
Malthus (1766–1834) in the first edition of his An Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus's
pessimistic conclusions–that "the power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the
earth to produce subsistence for man" and that "this natural inequality … appears impossible in the
way to the perfectability of society"–have been surely among the most cited sentences of the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries. 
The economist David Ricardo (1772–1823) raised another concern regarding agricultural resources
in The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, published in 1817. He argued that the new land
brought into cultivation as population grows will be steadily less fertile, and thus its produce
increasingly costly.

Carrying Capacity:

Can be defined as:

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The maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained in that specific
environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available. 

The maximal population size of a given species that an area can support without reducing its ability to
support the same species in the future.

Carrying capacity is never static. It varies over time in response to gradual environmental changes,
perhaps associated with climatic change or the successional development of ecosystems. More rapid
changes in carrying capacity may be caused by disturbances of the habitat occurring because of a fire
or windstorm, or because of a human influence such as timber harvesting, pollution, or the
introduction of a non-native competitor, predator, or disease. Carrying capacity can also be damaged
by overpopulation, which leads to excessive exploitation of resources and a degradation of the
habitat’s ability to support the species. 
In the standard ecological algebra, carrying capacity is represented by the constant K:
dN
dt [ ]
=rN 1−
N
K
Where;
 N = population size, 
r= maximum growth rate, 
K= carrying capacity of the local environment, and 
dN/dt=rate of change in population with time.

Carrying capacity is a function of characteristics of both the area and the organism.

Types of Carrying Capacity:

Bio-Physical Carrying Capacity: The maximal population size that could be sustained biophysically
under given technological capabilities. When the population is at carrying capacity, there is no
fluctuation in the birth or death rates. But when there is an increase in the population size above the
carrying capacity, there is an overutilization of natural resources such as water, land, etc.

Also, there tends to be an increase in pollution-causing many environmental problems. Furthermore, this
increase leads to the spread of many diseases. These diseases cause health problems. It increases death
rates in comparison to birth rates.

Thus, the carrying capacity now becomes more as there is less consumption due to fewer births. This
causes the population to increase again. The cycle goes on and once at carrying capacity, stops changing.

Thus, the importance of such a regulating factor in the carrying capacity can be assessed. Thus, there
should be an adequate use of natural resources, proper treatment of sewage, proper disposal of waste.

Social Carrying Capacity: The maximum population that could be sustained under a specified social
system and its associated pattern of resource consumption. Social dimensions of carrying capacity
include lifestyle aspirations, epidemiological factors, and patterns of socially controlled resource
distribution, the disparity between private and social costs, the difficulty in formulating rational policy
in the face of uncertainty, and various other features of human sociopolitical and economic
organization.

Cross Cultural Perspective on the Environment:

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  The term ‘cross-cultural’ refers to comparing or dealing with two or more different cultures.
 Cultural values influence attitudes to environment.
 Culture is an inescapable aspect of any human phenomenon, including how people shape
environments, use them and interact with them.
 There is relationship between culture and nature as reflected in the traditions of a variety of
places.
 Different cultures attach meanings to environment or nature in different ways.
 Humans through their various actions have dramatically changed the Earth, and our attitudes
towards Nature, formed at least in part through acceptance of certain pieces of religious
doctrine, are largely responsible.

 Environmental Politics:

Environmental politics is an academic field of study focused on three core components:

1. The study of political theories and ideas related to the environment.

2. The examination of the political parties and environmental social movements.
3. The analysis of public policy-making and implementation affecting the environment.

Environment politics is mainly compose of environment equity and environment justice:

Environment Equity
Environmental equity describes a country, or world, in which no single group or community faces
disadvantages in dealing with environmental hazards, disasters, or pollution.  Ideally, no one should
need extreme wealth or political connections to protect the well-being of their families and
communities.  Environmental equity is a basic human right.
According to the EPA, environmental equity can be broken down into two categories—fair treatment
and meaningful involvement.  Fair treatment means that no single sect of the population should be
disproportionately affected by environmental crises as a result of laws or policies.  Meaningful
involvement means that groups can offer input regarding decisions that affect their health or their
environment.  This involvement also means that their input will be taken seriously and considered
when making said decisions.  Additionally, lawmakers will actively seek feedback from affected
communities.
Environment Justice:
If environmental equity is a basic human right, environmental justice is the act of protecting that
right.  Environment Justice: equitable distribution of environmental risks and benefits; fair and
meaningful participation in environmental decision-making; recognition of community ways of
life, local knowledge, and cultural difference; and the capability of communities and individuals to
function and flourish in society. An alternative meaning, used in social sciences, of the term "justice" is
"the distribution of social goods".
Environmental justice involves the actions and activism necessary to highlight inequities and level the
playing field.  This means proper oversight and review of federal agencies, proper permitting and
licensing for companies, buildings, and warehouses that emit pollution, setting clear standards,
regulations, and laws that protect at-risk communities, and awarding grants to organizations that act
on behalf of these communities.
Equity is the outcome of environmental justice.  An equitable society is one in which justice has been
served.  They are complementary, not one in the same.

 Environmental Myths:

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 Myth 1: Packaging is bad. Because of state-of-the-art packaging, the United States wastes less food
than any part of the world except Africa.

Myth 2: Plastics are bad. Without the use of plastics, total use of packaging materials (measured by
weight) would increase four-fold, energy consumption would double and the garbage disposal would
increase more than double.

Myth 3: Disposables are bad. Careful studies show that disposables are not necessarily worse than
reusable or recyclable products. For example, aseptic juice boxes (which are usually disposed of, rather
than recycled) have a clear edge over their alternatives by most measures. Consumers who care mainly
about landfills may choose cloth diapers. But consumers who care more about air and water pollution and
conserving water and energy might choose disposables, which may also be preferable on the grounds of
health and convenience. 

Myth 4: Recycling is always good. Recycling itself can cause environmental harm, e.g., more fuel
consumption and more air pollution. As a result, the environmental costs of recycling may exceed any
possible environmental benefits. 
Myth 5: Recycling paper saves trees. Since most of the trees used to make paper are grown
explicitly for that purpose, if we use less paper, fewer trees will be planted and grown by commercial
harvesters. Recycling paper doesn't save trees, it reduces incentives to plant them. 

Myth 6: We cannot safely dispose of solid waste. This was a valid concern in the past. In fact, 22
percent of Superfund sites (hazardous waste disposal areas) are former municipal landfills. But things
are different today. Government regulations and new technology permit the safe disposal of solid waste
-- in landfills or by waste-to-energy incineration --- without threat to human health or the environment.
Even without new improvements, the Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the aggregate
risk from all operating municipal solid waste landfills in the United States is one cancer death every 23
years. 

Myth 7: We are running out of resources. Although all resources are finite, technology and markets
make it possible to use resources without exhausting them. That's why the international price of virtually
every raw material went down (reflecting abundance), not up (reflect ing scarcity) over the past decade. 
Myth 8: Forests are in rapid decline.
Myth 9: Air quality is getting worse.
Myth 10: The Kyoto Protocol will successfully reduce levels of CO2 in the atmosphere.
Myth 11: All environmentalists are motivated by altruistic concern for the planet.
Myth 6: All environmentalists are peace loving and engage in traditional forms of civil disobedience.
Myth 7: Businesses are not hurt by onerous environmental regulations.
Myth 8: Oil can easily be replaced by renewable energy.
Myth 9: Genetically modified (GM) crops are "bad."
Myth 10: We are running out of freshwater
Development Narrative:

Author and Key conclusions and implications for development aid

narrative

SAGAR SUNUWAR 56
 Collier, P. Focus on those living in countries where the potential for growth is trapped.
The Bottom Engage a broader sweep of instruments beyond aid.
Billion

Sachs, J. Development aid should be large, focused, and integrated. Governance and
The End of institutions will develop as growth occurs.
Poverty

Easterly, W. Weak accountability means that the interventions of top-down planners tend to
The White fail.
Man’s Burden Be humble. Look for opportunities to support home-grown initiatives. Be
better at listening in- country. Support real accountability – for yourselves and for
others.

Sachs, W. Climate change signals the biophysical limits of growth.

Global Challenges: Link Northern domestic and Northern development efforts much more
Climate Chaos closely.
and the Future There needs to be a convergence in resource use per unit of growth – in
of Development North and South.
Northern countries have to be prepared to act unilaterally on climate
change if necessary.

Chang, H-J. Rich countries want poor countries to do as they say, not as they did. Poor
Bad Samaritans countries need selective, strategic integration with world economy. Tilt the
playing field in favour of developing countries. Give them freer access to open
markets and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR).

Stiglitz, J. Fulfil G8 commitments; fairer trade; more open IPR; developed country
Making leadership on climate change; more responsible governance in North of
Globalization financial services, arms, narcotics.
Work Be more supportive of civil society to put more pressure on developed and
developing countries to make globalisation more inclusive.

UNIT: IV ENVIRONMENTALISM SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND FEMINISM

Discourse on Women and Nature:
Metaphor: Women are associated with nature - i.e. 'Mother Earth', and Nature is associated with
women i.e. 'virgin' (sexually pure) awaiting exploitation or yet untouched by man. Female life-giving
principle was considered divine and a great mystery so women got Goddess statues
Societal: women are associated with physical side of life, their role is 'closer to nature' as they
centered to fulfill human’s physical requirements: food, reproduction, care of children and sick, take
care of day-to-day life. Women's nature-like role let men to go 'out into the world', to exploit nature,
generally passive as nature. Historically, women have had no power in the outside world, no place in
decision-making, intellectual life, the work of the mind has traditionally not been accessible to women,

SAGAR SUNUWAR 57
they said to be ignorant. Women's values centred around life-giving, must be re-valued, and elevated
from their subordinate role, women's knowledge from experience be recognized and respected.
Women largely absent from formal policy formulation and decision-making so involve women in such
field at all levels; integrate gender concerns in policies and programs; strengthen /establish
mechanisms at the national, regional and international level.
Ortner, an anthropologist, was one of the first to raise the question about the relationship between
women and nature in the title of her 1974 paper, "Is the female to male as nature is to culture?" Ortner
argues that women "seem to be" closer to nature, because of their biology, that is, their reproductive
functions. However, she maintains that "... it is not biology per se, but the social construction of it, that
places women closer to nature," (in Sayers 1982: 108). Thus, women are "perceived" to be inferior
because of their anatomy and inherent social roles (eg., childcare), which are largely undervalued by
society with its overriding emphasis on culture, on thought and technology.
Merchant (1980) describes two contrasting images of women and nature in pre-sixteenth century
Europe. The first and more dominant image was organic, based upon a culturally sanctioned respect
for the earth which was seen as a "nurturing mother." The second and opposing image saw nature as
wild, as disorder which needed to be controlled. This was reflected in the conceptualisation of women
as witches who "raised storms, caused illness, destroyed crops...and killed infants," (Merchant 1980:
127 in Jackson 1993: 390) and were therefore unjustly tried and usually burnt alive.
Vandana Shiva (1989) identifies colonialism as the starting point for the exploitation and control of
women and nature in the Indian context. She argues that the model of development imposed by
imperialism marked a radical shift from the traditional Indian cosmological view of nature as
"Prakriti," a living and creative process based upon the feminine principle of "Shakti" (female energy).
Together with "Purusha," the masculine principle, it created the world. Thus, for women "...the death
of Prakriti is simultaneously a beginning of their marginalisation, devaluation, displacement and
ultimate dispensability. The ecological crisis is, at its root, the death of the feminine principle," (Shiva
1989: 42).
According to Shiva, this relationship is based on shared similarities, that is both women and nature
create and sustain life and both (in India) have suffered the impact of colonisation and post-colonial
development. 

Environmental Movement:
A political movement that focuses on protecting the environment, reducing environmental damage
(such as pollution), and reducing unsustainable use of natural resources.
History of Environmental Movement:
The origins of the environmental movement lay in response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in
the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the
concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air
pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to
the growing load of untreated human waste.[2] Under increasing political pressure from the urban
middle-class, the first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali
Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by
the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash.
In 1916, the National Park Service was founded by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. Pioneers of the
movement called for more efficient and professional management of natural resources. They fought
for reform because they believed the destruction of forests, fertile soil, minerals, wildlife, and water
resources would lead to the downfall of society. The group that has been the most active in recent
years is the climate movement.
in the 1940s, Aldo Leopold wrote "A Sand County Almanac". He believed in a land ethic that
recognized that maintaining the "beauty, integrity, and health of natural systems" as a moral and
ethical imperative.
1962 - Rachel Carson publishes "Silent Spring". This book brought together research on toxicology,
ecology and epidemiology to suggest that agricultural pesticides were building to catastrophic levels.
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This was linked to damage to animal species and to human health. It shattered the assumption that
the environment had an infinite capacity to absorb pollutants.
1968 - Paul Ehrlich publishes book "Population Bomb" on the connection between human population,
resource exploitation and the environment.
1968 - The Club of Rome, led by Italian industrialist Aurrelio Peccei and Scottish scientist Alexander
King, is established by 36 European economists and scientists. Its goal is to pursue a holistic
understanding of and solutions to the 'world problematique'. It commissions a study of global
proportions to model and analyze the dynamic interactions between industrial production,
population, environmental damage, food consumption and natural resource usage.
1968 - The UN General Assembly authorizes the Human Environment Conference to be held in 1972.
1969 - Friends of the Earth forms as a non-profit advocacy organization dedicated to protecting the
planet from environmental degradation; preserving biological, cultural, and ethnic diversity; and
empowering citizens to have an influential voice in decisions affecting the quality of their
environment -- and their lives.
Beginning in 1969 and continuing into the 1970s, Illinois-based environmental activist James F.
Phillips engaged in numerous covert anti-pollution campaigns using the pseudonym "the Fox." His
activities included plugging illegal sewage outfall pipes and dumping toxic wastewater produced by
a US Steel factory inside the company's Chicago corporate office. Phillips' "ecotage" campaigns
attracted considerable media attention and subsequently inspired other direct action protests against
environmental destruction.

1970 - First Earth Day held as a national teach-in on the environment. An estimated twenty million
people participated in peaceful demonstrations all across the USA.
1971 - Greenpeace starts up in Canada and launches an aggressive agenda to stop environmental
damage through civil protests and non-violent interference.
1972 - Rene Dubos and Barbara Ward write "Only One Earth". The book sounds an urgent alarm about
the impact of human activity on the biosphere but also expresses optimism that a shared concern for
the future of the planet could lead humankind to create a common future.
1972 - United Nations Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm under the leadership of
Maurice Strong. The conference is rooted in the regional pollution and acid rain problems of northern
Europe. This eco-agenda is opposed by the Group of 77 and the Eastern bloc. Nevertheless, it provides
the first international recognition of environmental issues. The concept of sustainable development is
cohesively argued to present a satisfactory resolution to the environmental vs. development dilemma.
The conference leads to the establishment of numerous national environmental protection agencies
and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests and politics to gain a wider
appeal and influence. 
1972 - Club of Rome publishes "Limits to Growth". The report is extremely controversial because it
predicts dire consequences if growth is not slowed. Northern countries criticize the report for not
including technological solutions while Southern countries are incensed because it advocates
abandonment of economic development. The ensuing debate heightens awareness of the
interconnections between several well-known global problems.
1973 - Chipko Movement born in India in response to deforestation and environmental degradation.
The actions of the women of the community influenced both forestry and women's participation in
environmental issues.
1977 - Greenbelt Movement starts in Kenya. It is based on community tree-planting to prevent
desertification.

1977 - UN Conference on Desertification is held.

1980 - World Conservation Strategy released by IUCN. The strategy defines development as "the
modification of the biosphere and the application of human, financial, living and non-living resources
to satisfy human needs and improve the quality of human life". The section "Towards Sustainable
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Development" identifies the main agents of habitat destruction as poverty, population pressure, social
inequity and the terms of trade. It calls for a new International Development Strategy with the aims of
redressing inequities, achieving a more dynamic and stable world economy, stimulating accelerating
economic growth and countering the worst impacts of poverty.

1980 - US President Jimmy Carter authorizes study which led to the "Global 2000" report. This report
recognizes biodiversity for the first time as a critical characteristic in the proper functioning of the
planetary ecosystem. It further asserts that the robust nature of ecosystems is weakened by species
extinction.
1983 - World Commission on Environment and Development forms. Chaired by Norwegian Prime
Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, the commission works for three years to weave together a report on
social, economic, cultural, and environmental issues.
1983 - Development Alternatives is established in India as a non-profit research, development and
consultancy organization. It fosters a new relationship between people, technology and the
environment in the South in order to attain the goal of sustainable development.
1984 - Worldwatch Institute publishes its first State of the World Report. The report monitors
changes in the global resource base, focusing particularly on how changes there affect the economy. It
concludes that "we are living beyond our means, largely by borrowing against the future."

1986 - IUCN Conference on Environment and Development held in Ottawa. Meeting participants
define sustainable development as the emerging paradigm derived from two closely related
paradigms of conservation 1) one reacting against the laissez-faire economic theory which considers
living resources as externalities and free goods and 2) one based on the concept of resource
stewardship

1987 - "Our Common Future" (Brundtland Report) published. It ties problems together and, for the
first time, gives some direction for comprehensive global solutions. It also popularizes the term
"sustainable development".
1987 - Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is adopted.
1988 - Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change established with three working groups to assess
the most up-to-date scientific, technical and socio-economic research in the field of climate change.
1992 - U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in
the publication of Agenda 21, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework Convention on
Climate Change, the Rio Declaration, and a statement of non-binding Forest Principles. The parallel
NGO Forum signs a full set of alternative treaties.

Ecofeminism:
Eco feminism is a social and political movement, attempts to unite environmentalism and feminism
with some currents linking deep ecology and feminism
Ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal system is based on triple domination of the
people of Third World, women, and nature
Belief that the social mentality that leads to the domination and oppression of women is directly
connected to the social mentality that leads to the abuse of the environment
Ecofeminism, or ecological feminism, is a term coined in 1974 by Françoise d'Eaubonne .
Ecofeminist analysis explores the connections between women and nature in culture, religion,
literature and iconography, and addresses the parallels between the oppression of nature and the
oppression of women. There are different types of eco feminism which focus on areas such as
economics, spirituality, colonization, class struggle or racism.These parallels include but are not
limited to seeing women and nature as property, seeing men as the curators of culture and women as
the curators of nature, and how men dominate women and humans dominate nature. Ecofeminism
emphasizes that both women and nature must be respected. Though the scope of ecofeminist analysis

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is broad and dynamic, American author and ecofeminist Charlene Spretnak has offered one way of
categorizing ecofeminist work: 1) through the study of political theory as well as history; 2) through
the belief and study of nature-based religions; 3) through environmentalism.
Eco feminism basically has two grounds; One women are nearer to nature & contributing for nature
while man are exploiting nature; another The social mentality that leads to the domination and
oppression of women is directly connected to the social mentality that leads to the abuse of the
environment’
Eco feminists also criticize Western lifestyle choices, such as consuming food that has travelled
thousands of miles and playing sports (golf) which require ecological destruction.
Ecofeminism do share a commitment to developing ethics which do not sanction or encourage either
the domination of any group of humans or the abuse of nature.
Ecofeminist theory asserts that capitalism reflects only paternalistic and patriarchal values. This
notion implies that the effects of capitalism have not benefited women and has led to a harmful split
between nature and culture. In the 1970s, early ecofeminists discussed that the split can only be
healed by the feminine instinct for nurture and holistic knowledge of nature's processes.
Vandana Shiva wrote that women have a special connection to the environment through their daily
interactions and that this connection has been underestimated. According to Shiva, women in
subsistence economies who produce "wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their
own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature's processes". She makes the point that "these
alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not
recognized by the capitalist reductionist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness
of nature, or the connection of women's lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth".  Shiva
blames this failure on the Western patriarchal perceptions of development and progress. According to
Shiva, patriarchy has labeled women, nature, and other groups not growing the economy as
"unproductive".
Ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal systems that predominate throughout the
world reveal a triple domination of the Global South (people who live in the Third World), women,
and nature.
This domination and exploitation of women, of poorly resourced peoples and of nature sits at the
core of the ecofeminist analysis.

United Conference on the Human Environment

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm
Conference) was an international conference convened under United Nations auspices held in
Stockholm, Sweden from June 5-16, 1972. It was the UN's first major conference on international
environmental issues, and marked a turning point in the development of international environmental
politics. It was attended by the representatives of 113 countries, 19 inter-governmental agencies, and
more than 400 inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations.
It is widely recognized as the beginning of modern political and public awareness of global
environmental problems.
The participants adopted a series of principles for sound management of the environment including
the Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan for the Human Environment and several resolutions.
The Stockholm Declaration, which contained 26 principles, placed environmental issues at the
forefront of international concerns and marked the start of a dialogue between industrialized and
developing countries on the link between economic growth, the pollution of the air, water, and
oceans and the well-being of people around the world. 
The Action Plan contained three main categories: a) Global Environmental Assessment Program
(watch plan); b) Environmental management activities; (c) International measures to support
assessment and management activities carried out at the national and international levels. In addition,
these categories were broken down into 109 recommendations.

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One of the major results of the Stockholm conference was the creation of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
Principles of the Stockholm Declaration:
1. Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism condemned
2. Natural resources must be safeguarded
3. The Earth's capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained
4. Wildlife must be safeguarded
5. Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted
6. Pollution must not exceed the environment's capacity to clean itself
7. Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented
8. Development is needed to improve the environment
9. Developing countries therefore need assistance
10. Developing countries need reasonable prices for exports to carry out environmental
management
11. Environment policy must not hamper development
12. Developing countries need money to develop environmental safeguards
13. Integrated development planning is needed
14. Rational planning should resolve conflicts between environment and development
15. Human settlements must be planned to eliminate environmental problems
16. Governments should plan their own appropriate population policies
17. National institutions must plan development of states' natural resources
18. Science and technology must be used to improve the environment
19. Environmental education is essential
20. Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developing countries
21. States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger others
22. Compensation is due to states thus endangered
23. Each nation must establish its own standards
24. There must be cooperation on international issues
25. International organizations should help to improve the environment
26. Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated
Achievements:
The Stockholm Conference motivated countries around the world to monitor environmental
conditions as well as to create environmental ministries and agencies. Despite these institutional
accomplishments, including the establishment of UNEP, the failure to implement most of its action
programme has prompted the UN to have follow-up conferences. The succeeding United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development convened in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (the Rio Earth
Summit), the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg and the 2012 United
Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) all take their starting point in the
declaration of the Stockholm Conference.
Some argue that this conference, and more importantly the scientific conferences preceding it, had a
real impact on the environmental policies of the European Community (that later became
the European Union). For example, in 1973, the EU created the Environmental and Consumer
Protection Directorate, and composed the first Environmental Action Program. Such increased
interest and research collaboration arguably paved the way for further understanding of global
warming, which has led to such agreements as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, and has
given a foundation of modern environmentalism.

World Commission on Environment and Development:

Introduction:
The World Commission on Environment and Development, popularly known as the Brundtland
Commission, was established by the UN General Assembly in 1983. The 1983 General Assembly
passed Resolution 38/161 "Process of preparation of the Environmental Perspective to the Year
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 2000 and Beyond", establishing the Commission. The mission of the Commission was to unite
countries to pursue sustainable development together.
The Chairman of the Commission was Gro Harlem Brundtland, the former Prime Minister of
Norway and and Mansour Khalid was the Vice-Chairman. Members of the commission represent 21
different nations (both developed and developing countries). The UN decided to establish the
Brundtland Commission to rally countries to work and pursue sustainable development together.
History:
Ten years after the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, a number of global
environmental challenges had clearly not been adequately addressed. In several ways, these
challenges had grown. Particularly, the underlying problem of how to reduce poverty in low-income
countries through more productive and industrialized economy without, exacerbating the global and
local environmental remained unresolved. Neither high-income countries in the North nor low-
income countries in the South were willing to give up an economic development based on growth, but
environmental threats, ranging from pollution, acid rain, deforestation and desertification, the
destruction of the ozone layer, to early signs of climate change, were impossible to overlook and
increasingly unacceptable. There was a tangible need for a developmental concept that would allow
reconciling economic development with environmental protection.
In December 1983, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, asked the
former Prime Minister of Norway, Gro Harlem Brundtland, to create an organization independent of
the UN to focus on environmental and developmental problems and solutions after an affirmation by
the General Assembly resolution in the fall of 1983. This new organization was the Brundtland
Commission, or more formally, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).
The Brundtland Commission was first headed by Gro Harlem Brundtland as Chairman and Mansour
Khalid as Vice-Chairman.
The organization aimed to create a united international community with shared sustainability goals
by identifying sustainability problems worldwide, raising awareness about them, and suggesting the
implementation of solutions. In 1987, the Brundtland Commission published the first volume of “Our
Common Future,” the organization's main report. “Our Common Future” strongly influenced the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 and the third UN Conference on Environment and
Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002. 
Achievement:
The Commission released a benchmark report Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland
Report in October 1987. After releasing the report, the Brundtland Commission officially dissolved in
December 1987. The report coined and defined the meaning of the term "Sustainable Development“,
which is considered as the authentic definition of sustainable to date. An organization Center for Our
Common Future was established in April 1988 to take the place of the Commission.
Its targets were multilateralism and interdependence of nations in the search for a sustainable
development path. The report sought to recapture the spirit of the Stockholm Conference which had
introduced environmental concerns to the formal political development sphere. Our Common
Future placed environmental issues firmly on the political agenda; it aimed to discuss the
environment and development as one single issue.
The term sustainable development was coined in the paper Our Common Future, released by the
Brundtland Commission. Sustainable development is the kind of development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The two
key concepts of sustainable development are:
• the concept of "needs" in particular the essential needs of the world's poorest people, to which they
should be given dominant priority;
• the idea of limitations which is imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the
environment's ability to meet both present and future needs.

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The Brundtland Commission's mandate was to:

1. “Re-examine the critical issues of environment and development and to formulate

innovative, concrete, and realistic action proposals to deal with them;
2. strengthen international cooperation on environment and development and to assess
and propose new forms of cooperation that can break out of existing patterns and
influence policies and events in the direction of needed change; and
3. raise the level of understanding and commitment to action on the part of individuals,
voluntary organizations, businesses, institutes, and governments” (1987: 347). “The
Commission focused its attention in the areas of population, food security, the loss of
species and genetic resources, energy, industry, and human settlements - realizing that
all of these are connected and cannot be treated in isolation one from another”
The Brundtland Commission Report recognised that human resource development in the form of
poverty reduction, gender equity, and wealth redistribution was crucial to formulating strategies for
environmental conservation, and it also recognised that environmental-limits to economic growth in
industrialised and industrialising societies existed. The Brundtland Report claimed that poverty
reduces sustainability and accelerates environmental pressures – creating a need for the balancing
between economy and ecology.
The publication of Our Common Future and the work of the World Commission on Environment and
Development laid the groundwork for the convening of the 1992 Earth Summit and the adoption
of Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration and to the establishment of the Commission on Sustainable
Development.

The Earth Summit-1992

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the 'Earth
Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992. This global conference, held on the
occasion of the 20th anniversary of the first Human Environment Conference in Stockholm, Sweden,
in 1972, brought together political leaders, diplomats, scientists, representatives of the media and
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from 179 countries for a massive effort to focus on the
impact of human socio-economic activities on the environment. There were 7,000 diplomats and their
staff. It was called "mother of all summits" because it was "the biggest gathering of world leaders ever
held“.
The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic and environmental factors
are interdependent and evolve together, and how success in one sector requires action in other
sectors to be sustained over time. The primary objective of the Rio 'Earth Summit' was to produce a
broad agenda and a new blueprint for international action on environmental and development issues
that would help guide international cooperation and development policy in the twenty-first century.
The 'Earth Summit' concluded that the concept of sustainable development was an attainable goal for
all the people of the world, regardless of whether they were at the local, national, regional or
international level. It also recognized that integrating and balancing economic, social and
environmental concerns in meeting our needs is vital for sustaining human life on the planet and that
such an integrated approach is possible. The conference also recognized that integrating and
balancing economic, social and environmental dimensions required new perceptions of the way we
produce and consume, the way we live and work, and the way we make decisions. This concept was
revolutionary for its time, and it sparked a lively debate within governments and between
governments and their citizens on how to ensure sustainability for development.
The issues addressed included:
systematic study of patterns of production — particularly the production of toxic components, such
as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive chemicals

SAGAR SUNUWAR 64
alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which delegates linked to global climate
change
new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in
cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and smoke
the growing usage and limited supply of water
Achievements:
1. Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations with
regard to sustainable development. Agenda 21 is grouped into 4 sections:
Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty, especially
in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, achieving a more
sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making.
Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development includes atmospheric
protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological
diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the management of biotechnology, and radioactive
wastes.
Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and youth,
women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and strengthening the role
of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers.
Section IV: Means of Implementation includes science, technology transfer, education, international
institutions, and financial mechanisms.
2. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: It consisted 27
principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable development. 
3. An important achievement of the summit was an agreement on the Climate
Change Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris
Agreement. Another agreement was to "not to carry out any activities on the
lands of indigenous peoples that would cause environmental degradation or that
would be culturally inappropriate".
4. Moreover, important legally binding agreements (Rio Convention) were opened
for signature:
Convention on Biological Diversity
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
5. Forest Principles
6. The 'Earth Summit' also led to the creation of the Commission on Sustainable
Development
World Summit on Sustainable Development:
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) or Earth Summit 2002 was held in
Johannesburg, South Africa, from 26 August to 4 September 2002. The World Summit on Sustainable
Development was also known as Earth Summit II or Rio +10 which was organised after 10 years of the
first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro to develop consensus on the sustainable development by the
United Nations. It was convened to discuss sustainable development by the United Nations. It was
organized10 years after the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.

The summit focused the world's attention toward meeting difficult challenges, including
improving people's lives and conserving natural resources, with ever-increasing demands for food,
water, shelter, sanitation, energy, health services and economic security.
Outcomes of World Summit on Sustainable Development:
1. The Summit set the priorities for the detailing of the implementation plan and actions for the
countries on way of sustainability.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 65
2. The Summit gives a political statement in the form of a "Johannesburg Declaration", to be agreed by
world leaders, reaffirming their commitment to work towards sustainable development.
3. The Summit will serve as a platform for the launch of new partnership initiatives known as "Type 2"
outcomes -- by and between governments, NGOs and businesses, to tackle specific problems and
achieve measurable results.
The Earth Summit II or Rio +10 made the commitment to be one of the largest and important global
meetings ever held on the integration of economic, environmental and social decision-making. It will
focus on building a commitment at the highest levels of government and society to better implement
Agenda 21, the roadmap for achieving sustainable development adopted at the 1992 United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development -- the "Earth Summit" -- held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Rio +20
Overview
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) was held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil on 20 to 22 June 2012. It resulted in a focused political outcome document which contains clear
and practical measures for implementing sustainable development.
In Rio, Member States decided to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), which will build upon the Millennium Development Goals and converge with the post 2015
development agenda. Rio+20 was one of the biggest international gatherings of 2012, and the largest
event in the history of the United Nations. It presented an opportunity to re-direct and re-energise
political commitment to the three dimensions of sustainable development: economic growth, social
improvement and environmental protection.
Objectives (3)
1. Securing renewed political commitment for sustainable development.
2. Assessing the progress and implementation gaps in meeting previous commitments.
3. Addressing new and emerging challenges.

Rio+20 focused on two themes:

1. A Green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication
2. The institutional framework for sustainable development
The main outcome of this conference was the adaptation of The Future We Want document.
Outcomes
Two highlights of Rio+20 were an agreement to develop a set of global sustainable development goals
(SDGs) and to establish a high-level political forum on sustainable development. The outcomes
document discusses how the green economy can be used as a tool to achieve sustainable
development; strengthens the United Nations Environment Programme, promotes corporate
sustainability reporting measures and takes steps to go beyond gross domestic product to assess the
well-being of a country.
The Future We Want also focuses on improving gender equity and recognises the important role
Indigenous knowledge plays in sustainable development. The document calls for countries to strive to
achieve a 'land degradation neutral' world (which will be implemented through the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification), to integrate planning and build sustainable cities and urban
settlements (through assistance to local authorities), to strengthen risk assessments and to develop
tools to reduce the risk of disasters.
The Conference also adopted ground-breaking guidelines on green economy policies.
Governments also agreed to strengthen the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) on
several fronts with action to be taken during the 67th session of the General Assembly.
Governments also adopted the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and
production patterns.
The Conference also took forward-looking decisions on a number of thematic areas, including energy,
food security, oceans, cities, and decided to convene a Third International Conference on SIDS in 2014.

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Kyoto Protocol:
Kyoto Protocol is a global Agreement that set targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
The Protocol was adopted by Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force in
2005. Kyoto Protocol aimed at combating global warming. The Kyoto Protocol is a agreement under
which industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2%
compared to the year 1990. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized
countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol applies to the six greenhouse
gases listed in Annex A: carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
The Protocol operationalised the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC). 192 nations committed to reducing their emissions by an average of 5.2% by 2012, which

would represent about 29% of the world’s total emissions. Countries that ratified the Kyoto Protocol

were assigned maximum carbon emission levels for specific periods and participated in carbon credit

trading. If a country emitted more than its assigned limit, then it would receive a lower emissions limit

in the following period.

Developed vs Developing Nations

Recognising that developed countries are principally responsible for the current levels of GHG

emissions as a result of more than 150 years of unmitigated industrial activity, the Protocol placed a

heavier burden on them. 37 industrialised nations plus the EU were mandated to cut their GHG

emissions, while developing countries were asked to voluntarily comply; more than 100 developing

countries, including China and India, were exempted from the treaty.

The Protocol separated countries into two groups: Annex I contained developed nations, and Non-

Annex I contained developing countries. Emission limits were placed on Annex I countries only. Non-

Annex I countries could invest in projects to lower emissions in their countries. For these projects,

developing countries earned carbon credits that they could trade or sell to developed countries,

allowing the developing nations a higher level of maximum carbon emissions for that period. This

effectively allowed developed countries to continue emitting GHGs.

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The Protocol established a monitoring, review and verification system, as well as a compliance system

to ensure transparency and hold parties accountable. All countries’ emissions had to be monitored

and precise records of the trades kept through registry systems.

The Kyoto Mechanisms:

One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market mechanisms,
which are based on the trade of emissions permits. Under the Protocol, countries must meet their
targets primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers them an additional
means to meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms:
1. The Emissions trading - known as the carbon market it is envisaged as the key tool to reduce
GHG emissions at global level. According to the UNFCCC Secretariat it was worth 30
billion USD in 2006 and keeps growing.

2. The Clean development mechanism, CDM – it is a project-based mechanism that feeds the
carbon market and involves investment in sustainable development projects that reduce
emissions in developing countries.

3. The Joint implementation, JI – it is a project-based mechanism that feeds the carbon

market and helps stimulate green investment by encouraging industrialised countries to carry
out joint implementation projects with other developed countries.

International Emissions Trading: Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol,
allows countries that have emission units to spare - emissions permitted them but not "used" - to sell
this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets. Thus, a new commodity was created in the
form of emission reductions or removals. Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, people
speak simply of trading in carbon. Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other commodity. This is
known as the "carbon market." More than actual emissions units can be traded and sold under the
Kyoto Protocols emissions trading scheme.
The other units which may be transferred under the scheme, each equal to one tonne of CO2, may be
in the form of:

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  A removal unit (RMU) on the basis of land use, land-use change and forestry
(LULUCF) activities such as reforestation
  An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint implementation project
 A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a clean development mechanismproject
activity

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):  The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article
12 of the Protocol, allows a country to implement an emission-reduction project in developing
countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent
to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets. The mechanism is seen by
many as a pioneer. It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind,
providing a standardized emissions offset instrument, CERs. A CDM project activity might involve, for
example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or the installation of more energy-efficient
boilers. The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions. A CDM project
must provide emission reductions. The projects must qualify through a rigorous and public
registration and issuance process. 

Joint implementation (JI)

The mechanism known as "joint implementation", defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a
country to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission removal
project in another developing countries, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted
towards meeting its Kyoto target. Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient
means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign
investment and technology transfer. A JI project must provide a reduction in emissions by sources, or
an enhancement of removals by sinks.

The Kyoto mechanisms:

 Stimulate sustainable development through technology transfer and investment
 Help countries with Kyoto commitments to meet their targets by reducing emissions or
removing carbon from the atmosphere in other countries in a cost-effective way
 Encourage the private sector and developing countries to contribute to emission reduction
efforts

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CDM and JI are the two project-based mechanisms which feed the carbon market. The CDM involves
investment in emission reduction or removal enhancement projects in developing countries that
contribute to their sustainable development, while JI enables developed countries to carry out
emission reduction or removal enhancement projects in other developed countries.

The Doha Amendment

After the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol ended in December 2012, parties to the

Protocol met in Doha, Qatar, to discuss an amendment to the original Kyoto agreement. The Doha

Amendment added new targets for the second commitment period, 2012-2020, for participating

countries, during which time parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18% below 1990

levels 

This was short-lived; in 2015, all UNFCCC participants signed another pact, the Paris Climate

Agreement, which effectively replaced the Kyoto Protocol.

Monitoring emission targets

The Kyoto Protocol also established a rigorous monitoring, review, compliance system and
verification system.  to ensure transparency and hold Parties to account. Under the Protocol,
countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades
carried out.

Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN Climate
Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction log to verify that
transactions are consistent with the rules of the Protocol.
Reporting is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and national reports under
the Protocol at regular intervals.
A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to meet
their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the adverse

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effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of technologies that can help
increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing
countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment period, the Fund was
financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project activities. In Doha, in 2012, it was decided
that for the second commitment period, international emissions trading and joint implementation
would also provide the Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.

UNIT: V ENVIRONMENT, WOMEN AND LIVELIHOODS

What are Natural Resources?

Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet) independent of human
actions.
Natural resources are resources that exist without any actions of humankind.These are the resources
that are found in the environment and are developed without the intervention of humans. Common
examples of natural resources include air, sunlight, water, soil, stone, plants, animals and fossil fuels.
Natural resources are naturally occurring materials that are useful to man or could be useful under
conceivable technological, economic or social circumstances or supplies drawn from the earth,
supplies such as food, building and clothing materials, fertilizers, metals, water and geothermal
power. For a long time, natural resources were the domain of the natural sciences.
Different Cultural Views about Nature:
 Our view of nature and the environment are culturally bound
Western View of the Environment
Man as superior to other creatures.
God gave man dominion over plants and animals
Garden of Eden story
Implicit theory of stewardship but freedom to use nature to improve life
Non-Western View of the Environment
Man seen as part of nature, not separate from it or superior to it
Nature viewed in spiritual terms
Man shouldn’t seek to control nature but work with it, preserve it
Gods or spirits may inhabit nature
See change a cyclical rather than linear
Social responsibilities more important
Educated elites frequently share a more western view of the environment
Hindus worship various natural components as God, such as Surya Deva (Sun), Chandra Deva (Moon),
Jal Devata or Barun (water), Pipal tree, Tulsi (as the lord Bishnu), etc.
Various creatures are also worshipped in the Hindu tradition: Nag Devata (snake), Gau Mata (cow as
mother).
There is respectable place for various animals: dog, crow, ox, cow etc are treated with respect in
various Hindu festivals.

What are the Different Types of Natural Resources?

Based on the availability are two types of natural resources:
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 3. Renewable: resources that are available in infinite quantity and can be used repeatedly are
called renewable resources. Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these
resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available and their quantities are
not noticeably affected by human consumption. Though many renewable resources do not
have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use.
Resources from a human use perspective are classified as renewable so long as the rate of
replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption. They replenish easily
compared to non-renewable resources. Example: Forest, wind, water, etc.
4. Non-Renewable: resources that are limited in abundance due to their non-renewable nature
and whose availability may run out in the future are called non-renewable resources. on-
renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment. Minerals
are the most common resource included in this category. From the human perspective,
resources are non-renewable when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of
replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category
because their rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions of years), meaning they
are considered non-renewable. Some resources naturally deplete in amount without human
interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, which
naturally decay into heavy metals. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling
them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. Once they are completely used they take
millions of years to replenish.Examples include fossil fuels, minerals, etc.Difference between
Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

It can be renewed as it is available in Once completely consumed, it cannot be renewed

infinite quantity due to limited stock

Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature

Low cost and environment-friendly High cost and less environment-friendly

Replenish quickly Replenish slowly or do not replenish naturally at all

The 5 Most Important Natural Resources are:

6. Air: Clean air is important for all the plants, animals, humans to survive on this planet. So, it is
necessary to take measures to reduce air pollution.
7. Water: 70% of the Earth is covered in water and only 2 % of that is freshwater. Initiative to
educate and regulate the use of water should be taken.
8. Soil: Soil is composed of various particles and nutrients. It helps plants grow.
9. Iron: It is made from silica and is used to build strong weapons, transportation and buildings
10. Forests: As the population increases, the demand for housing and construction projects also
increases. Forests provide clean air and preserve the ecology of the world.

Poverty and Environment:

Two of the most important global issues today are pervasive poverty and problems related to
environmental degradation. The causal factors are complex. Since the 1970s it has been almost
universally agreed that poverty and environmental degradation are inextricably linked. Holmberg
(1991) pointed out that the relationship between the environment and poverty is not so straight
forward. Insufficient attention had been paid to some spontaneous and field experience and 

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that there was even a possibility of conflict between the goals of poverty alleviation and
environmental protection.
The environment-poverty nexus is a two-way relationship. Environment affects poverty situations in
three distinct dimensions:
i. by taking sources of livelihoods of poor people,
ii. by affecting their health and
iii. by influencing their vulnerability.
On the other hand, poverty also affects environment in various ways:
i. by forcing poor people to degrade environment,
ii. by encouraging countries to promote economic growth at the expense of environment, and
iii. by inducing societies to downgrade environmental concerns, including failing to channel
resources to address such concerns. 
Effect of Poverty on Environment:

Internationally, there is a known correlation between poverty and environmental degradation.

Because of lack of money, education, and concern, poor families disregard the environment to uphold
a “survival mentality". Poor countries do not see the environment as priority because of all the other
problems happening within the society, so nothing is done to conserve.

The World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) wrote (1987):

"Poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems. It is therefore futile to attempt
to deal with environmental problems without a broader perspective that encompasses the factors
underlying world poverty and international inequality.” The links between poverty and environment
were also seen to be self-enforcing. The Commission also wrote: “Many parts of the world are caught
in a vicious downwards spiral: poor people are forced to overuse environmental resources to survive
from day to day, and their impoverishment of their environment further impoverishes them, making
their survival ever more difficult and uncertain.” 
Poverty impacts the environment negatively. The definition of poverty is being unable to meet
one’s basic needs. Such needs include food, water, shelter, healthcare and education. Roughly half the
world’s people live in such conditions. Their focus is on obtaining the basic needs for short-term
survival. Many of these people are forced to deplete or degrade forests, rivers, fields, and soil. These
groups don’t have the privilege to be concerned about environmental impact. Many poor people
throughout the world die very prematurely from health problems as a result of environmental
degradation.

One such problem is a lack of access to properly sanitized facilities. More than a third of the
world’s population does not have adequate bathrooms. They have no choice other than to use outdoor
fields and streams for elimination. The result is that over a billion people obtain water from sources
that are contaminated from human and animal waste. A second problem would be malnutrition.
People living in poverty stricken environments do not receive sufficient amount of nutrients for
proper health. Many of these people die at a young age from normally treatable illnesses. The third
most common problem is respiratory illness. In poorer areas people rely on burning wood or coal
within their own homes as a means of cooking or just staying warm. Such actions lead them to breathe
in high concentrations of indoor air pollutants. The World Health Organization states that about seven
million people die each year from these conditions. About two thirds of these people are children
under the age of five.

Poverty among people puts stress on the environment whereas environmental problems cause severe
suffering to the poor. People, whether they be rich or poor, consume water, food, and natural
resources in order to remain alive. All economic activities are directly, indirectly or remotely based on
natural resources and any pressure on natural resources can cause environmental stress.

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Environmental damage can prevent people, especially the poor, from having good and hygienic living
standards. As poor people rely more directly on the environment than the rich for their survival, they
are mostly on the receiving end of environmental problems

Poverty often causes people to put relatively more pressure on the environment which results in
larger families (due to high death rates and insecurity), improper human waste disposal leading to
unhealthy living conditions, more pressure on fragile land to meet their needs, overexploitation of
natural resources and more deforestation. Insufficient knowledge about agricultural practices can also
lead to a decline in crop yield and productivity etc.

One of the biggest ways that the environment is affected by poverty is through deforestation. Forests
provide the world with clean air, in addition to working as “sink holes” that help reduce the drastic
climate changes seen in the world today. With the increasing level of deforestation taking place, the
environment is taking a heavy blow and finding it difficult to recover. Impoverished communities,
unaware of the errant, harmful ways in which they use natural resources, such as forest wood and
soil, are continuing the destructive cycle that spirals the environment further downward.

Air pollution is another way in which poverty contributes to environmental degradation. As

mentioned above, poor communities lack the proper knowledge when it comes to production
techniques. Thus, the ways in which they use resources to help them survive are harmful to the
resources around them, and ultimately the world at large. Air pollution is one of the major
consequences of poor production techniques while water pollution is a result of poor water
management, once again due to lack of knowledge. Water pollution affects so many things beyond the
poor community itself. Water pollution deprives soil of nourishing elements, kills off fish, and is
extremely harmful to human health.

Because extreme poverty doesn’t always lend to widespread birth education, many poor women lack
the resources necessary to engage in birth control. Therefore, it is common for poor women to
continue having children well after they would have liked because of little to no access to resources
and education.

The more the global population grows, the more weight is placed on the environment. Every human
being consumes their share of resources from the environment, and with so many births originating
from poor communities, the burdens placed on the environment grow heavier and heavier each day.

Effect of Environment on Poverty (Poor People)

On the other hand environmental problems add more to the miseries of poor people. Environmental
problems cause more suffering among them as environmental damage increases the impact of floods
and other environmental catastrophes. Soil erosion, land degradation and deforestation lead to a
decline in food production along with a shortage of wood for fuel contribute to inflation. In short, the
worst consequences of environmental deterioration, whether they be economical, social, or related to
mental or physical wellbeing, are experienced by poor people.

A number of studies have been carried out on how both poverty and wealth have impacted on the
environment, resulting in a number of environmental threats such as degradation of the soil, water
and marine resources which are essential for life supporting systems, pollution which is becoming
health threatening, loss of biodiversity and global climatic changes which jeopardize the very
existence of life on the planet. 

Effect of Affluence on the Environment:           

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Affluence affects the environment both positively and negatively. However, the negative effects of
affluence on the environment are far greater than those caused by poverty. People who live in well-
developed areas such Europe, Canada, and the US, or rapidly developing areas such as China and India
exist in high consumer societies. Such a lifestyle leads to unnecessary depletion of resources. Such
affluence has terrible consequences for the environment. G. Tyler Miller and Scott E. Spoolman give us
a more specific example of this disparity. “While the United States has far fewer people than India, the
average American consumes about 30 times as much as the average citizen of India and 100 times as
much as the average person in the world’s poorest countries.” The environmental impact caused by
one person in the US is far greater the average environmental impact caused by someone in an
undeveloped country.

            The flip side is that affluence can also be a source of help for the environment. People living in
well-developed societies have the luxury to be more concerned about environmental impact. Affluent
societies have the financial means to invest in technological research that can reduce pollution and
other forms of consumer waste. Wealthier nations tend to have cleaner air and water. The food
supplies are also better sanitized which leads to longer life spans. Money has the power to improve
environmental status since it can finance scientific research. Wealthier societies also generally have
higher levels of education, which encourages people to demand that governments and corporations be
more environmentally friendly. 

Gender Aspect of Food Security in Nepal

Food Security

Food security is defined as the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is considered
food secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. The World Food Summit of
1996 defined food security as existing "when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe,
nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life".

Commonly, the concept of food security is defined as including both physical and economic access to
food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food preferences. Household food security
exists when all members have access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Food security
incorporates a measure of resilience to future disruption or unavailability of critical food supply due
to various risk factors including droughts, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability,
and wars.

Pillars of Food Security:

The WHO states that there are three pillars that determine food security: food availability, food access,
and food use and misuse. In 2009, the World Summit on Food Security stated that the "four pillars of
food security are availability, access, utilization, and stability".
1. Availability
Food availability relates to the supply of food through production, distribution, and exchange. 
a. Food production: It is determined by a variety of factors including land ownership and use; soil
management; crop selection, breeding, and management; livestock breeding and management;
and harvesting. It can be affected by changes in rainfall and temperatures. The use of land,
water, and energy to grow food often competes with other uses can affect food production. It is
not required for a country to achieve food security. Nations don't have to have the natural
resources required to produce crops in order to achieve food security, as seen in the examples
of Japan and Singapore.]

SAGAR SUNUWAR 75
 b. Food distribution: It involves the storage, processing, transport, packaging, and marketing of
food. Food-chain infrastructure and storage technologies on farms can also affect the amount
of food wasted in the distribution process. Poor transport infrastructure can increase the price
of supplying water and fertilizer as well as the price of moving food to national and global
markets. Around the world, few individuals or households are continuously self-reliant for
food. This creates the need for a bartering, exchange, or cash economy to acquire food.
c. Exchange of Food: It requires efficient trading systems and market institutions, which can
affect food security. Per capita world food supplies are more than adequate to provide food
security to all, and thus food accessibility is a greater barrier to achieving food security.

2. Access
Food access refers to the affordability and allocation of food, as well as the preferences of individuals
and households. The UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights noted that the causes
of hunger and malnutrition are often not a scarcity of food but an inability to access available food,
usually due to poverty. Poverty can limit access to food, and can also increase how vulnerable an
individual or household is to food price spikes. Access depends on whether the household has enough
income to purchase food at prevailing prices or has sufficient land and other resources to grow its
own food. Households with enough resources can overcome unstable harvests and local
food shortages and maintain their access to food. There are two distinct types of access to food:
a. Direct access: A household produces food using human and material resources.
b. Economic access: A household purchases food produced elsewhere. 

Location can affect access to food and which type of access a family will rely on. The assets of a
household, including income, land, products of labor, inheritances, and gifts can also determine
a household's access to food.
3. Utilization
It refers to the metabolism of food by individuals. Once food is obtained by a household, a variety of
factors affect the quantity and quality of food that reaches members of the household. In order to
achieve food security, the food ingested must be safe and must be enough to meet the physiological
requirements of each individual.
4. Stability
Food stability refers to the ability to obtain food over time. Food insecurity can be transitory, seasonal,
or chronic.
a. Transitory food insecurity: In this food insecurity food may be unavailable during certain
periods of time. At the food production level, natural disasters and drought result in crop
failure and decreased food availability. Civil conflicts can also decrease access to food.
Instability in markets resulting in food-price spikes can cause transitory food insecurity. Other
factors that can temporarily cause food insecurity are loss of employment or productivity,
which can be caused by illness.
b.  Seasonal food: This insecurity can result from the regular pattern of growing seasons in food
production.
c. Chronic (or permanent) food insecurity: It is defined as the long-term, persistent lack of
adequate food. In this case, households are constantly at risk of being unable to acquire food to
meet the needs of all members. Chronic and transitory food insecurity are linked, since the
reoccurrence of transitory food security can make households more vulnerable to chronic food
insecurity.

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Gender inequalities, patriarchal norms, low social status, and lack of access to resources leads to
lower access to food and nutrition security among girls and women. Similarly, children, pregnant
women, lactating and nursing mothers will have specialised needs for food and nutrition. This is
not explicitly addressed while discussing food and nutrition security.
Traditionally, women are relegated to the role of caregiver and food manager in a household.
Women often allocate meals to others before themselves, hampering their own food intake. An
increase in family members owing to reverse migration from urban to rural or foreign migrants
has added the fear of placing lesser food on women’s plates given the fixed size of food
availability. 
Women in agriculture comprise 57.2 percent of the total labour employed. But the contribution of
women in food production and security is hardly recognised due to the predominance of the
patriarchal norms, inequalities in land ownership, access and control of livelihood assets and poor
decision-making status. The situation has worsened now because the extension of the lockdown
during peak harvesting season resulted in the shortage of seeds, fertilisers and agricultural inputs
which may hinder agriculture production domestically.
Apart from this, children, pregnant women and lactating and nursing mothers who have
specialised needs for food and nutrition will suffer the most given the present situation. According
to 2016’s demographic and health survey, 17 percent of women of reproductive age are thin or
undernourished. If the women of reproductive age or lactating mothers and their children do not
get adequate nutrition, cases of malnutrition will increase. The scarring effects of malnutrition will
remain for a more extended period in life, and reversing the impact of malnutrition can be very
costly, if not impossible. Similarly, female-headed households are generally food insecure due to
disadvantages regarding access to land, labour market, access to credit, discriminating cultural
norms, restricted mobility and ‘double day burden’ on their heads.
Women’s access to adequate food security, both for themselves and their families is dependent,
not only on their economic status, but on their own health, education and social status within the
family and in society. Women with low status tend to have weaker control over household
resources, tighter time constraints, less access to information and health services, poorer mental
health and lower self esteem. These factors are thought to be closely tied to woman’s own
nutritional status and the quality of care they receive and in turn to children’s birth weights and
the quality of care they receive
Gender inequality is one of the drivers of food insecurity, as the consistent social and economic
marginalization of women and girls results in lower access to food and less autonomy to make the
right choices regarding feeding and care giving practices. Women in Nepal have on average less
access to education and employment opportunities, and less control over productive resources
than do men. In addition, women’s ownership of key resources like land and housing, and their
decision-making power within the household has traditionally been limited. Though officially
outlawed and punishable by fines and imprisonment, practices such as chhaupadi, the physical
isolation of women and girls during menstruation, persist in parts of the country. These practices
also deny women and girls a nutritious diet during this period, exacerbating nutrition-related
health issues. There has been some gradual progress made in evening out this gender imbalance.
The gender gaps in education, health and in political representation have improved over time.
Women’s ownership of fixed assets increased to about 20 % from 10.8 % in 2001. These advances
have signaled a lowering of gender inequalities, although stark regional disparities still exist.
The present situation of food insecurity is the manifestation of the structural inequalities and
discrimination faced by women. The intersectionality of women and caste, class and geographical
locations further intensifies problems faced by women. Hence, addressing women’s food
insecurity should be seen from the perspective of gender empowerment. To address the food
insecurity arising from the current pandemic, targeted nutritional and food stamps should be
provided to pregnant and lactating women, widows, and single women. Similarly, priority women
at local level employment programmes and a smooth supply of essential foods can be some areas

SAGAR SUNUWAR 77
 where between different levels of government coordinate with each other. It is imperative to have
universal as well as targeted policies and programmes to address gender-specific food insecurity.

UNIT VI: GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN ENVIRONMENT

Gender Aspect of Natural Resource Management:

Natural resources are fundamental to sustaining the human population because they serve as the
basis for many of the goods and services on which humans depend including food, energy, clothes,
manufacturing, medicine and sanitation. Across the world, the rural poor have the greatest
dependence on natural resources; there are over 1.3 billion subsistence farmers, hunters and
gatherers, waged farm labourers and fishers that require access to land, water and plant/animal
species for their livelihoods1 . Approximately 60 million indigenous people rely fully on forests for
survival; in developing countries, roughly 1.2 billion people depend upon agroforestry farming
systems to increase agricultural yields and make a living. The condition of natural resources relates
closely to the sustainability and quality of human livelihoods, particularly within the developing world
and for individuals living in harsh environmental conditions.
As competition for natural resources grows, it is likely that the rural poor – particularly women – will
be hit the hardest.
Gender Inequalities in Natural Resource Management:
■ Typically, women and men have different roles and responsibilities when it comes to the use and
management of natural resources, such as land, water, forests, trees, biomass (fuelwood, dung, etc.),
livestock and fisheries.
Women and girls tend to have responsibility for sourcing, collecting and transporting natural
resources for domestic purposes. In the majority of developing countries, men are more prone to use
natural resources for commercial purposes (agriculture, fishing, timber). For example:
In crop production, it is common for men to prioritise (market-orientated) cash crops for export,
whereas women agriculturalists tend to focus more on food crops for the household and community
(FAO et al., 2009; IFAD 2010).
In developing countries, national food security often rests upon women's production of food crops
(Open Society Foundations, 2014).
In nearly all developing countries, women and girls are the main individuals responsible for
collecting, transporting and managing water for domestic use (drinking, cleaning, etc.) (IFAD, 2012).
Men and boys are likely to have other roles and priorities in relation to water supply and sanitation,
such as watering livestock and undertaking irrigated agriculture
■ Often, the domestic responsibilities of women and girls in relation to natural resources management
result in significant time burdens for them, undermining their ability to undertake productive
activities, such as education, decision-making and entrepreneurship.
Women spend up to 3-4 hours each day collecting household fuel . On average, women in many
developing countries are estimated to walk 6 km daily in order to collect water (UNFPA, 2002).
Women in women-headed households have highlighted water and fuelwood collection as one of their
most time-intensive responsibilities. (FAO/IFAD 2003, cited in FAO et al., 2009).
■ Women and men do not have the same rights and ability to access natural resources (land, trees,
water, animals, etc.). Although the situation differs, women generally do not have as many ownership
rights as men (SIDA, n.d.). Despite their role as food producers, women do not normally own the land
that they cultivate or have stable control (e.g. long-term lease) (ibid.). For example, women may have
land-use rights rather than ownership rights, or may be more dependent on communal property
(relative to men). These circumstances undermine women's ability to influence the control of the land
and its products, as well as to produce food, accumulate income, gain access to agricultural credit and
have expectations of long-term stability.
■ Limited access to secure land tenure has a knock-on effect on women's ability to access other
natural resources, such as water and trees (IFAD, 2012; CIFOR, 2013). For instance, tree rights are
SAGAR SUNUWAR 78
often linked to land rights. Due to having fewer formal land rights, women may have to travel long
distances to collect fuel, despite having local trees closer to their homes (on private land).
Alternatively, they may have to collect other types of fuel, such as dung and stalks.
■ Biodiversity loss and the growing competition over natural resources is likely to hit the rural poor
hardest, particularly women.
More than three-quarters (76%) of the world's extreme poor live in rural areas (World Bank and IMF,
2013). Poor rural households in developing countries are often those that depend the most upon local
ecosystems – including the genetic diversity of natural resources – for their livelihoods. Many lack the
productive resources to cope with rapid changes to ecosystems (IFAD 2010). Gender-based
inequalities in access to land, credit, information, markets and other productive resources put women
on the frontline of these risks. For instance, in the division of resources, women are often left with the
most instable, marginal lands, which are particularly susceptible to environmental shocks. Land
degradation and deforestation also impacts upon common property, on which many poor rural
women rely for natural resources such as fuelwood, fodder and food. In general, land and water
degradation increase food scarcity, malnutrition and instability (all of which affect the pool of natural
resources).
■ Reduced access to natural resources can lead to significant rises in women's labour, such as the
distances they must travel and the amount of time they must spend collecting household food, water
and fuel (UNEP/CBD, 2010). Lower access to resources can also heighten risks to women's health and
security (for example, longer journeys can increase women's susceptibility to gender-based violence;
degradation of water can bring greater likelihood of contracting waterborne diseases – such as
cholera and diarrhea – during the process of collection). Land degradation can bring additional social
costs, such as the migration of men from rural communities, leaving women to take on the traditional
'male responsibilities', but without the same ability as men to access supporting resources (for
example, financial services, technology, social networks) (Lambrou and Laub 2004).
■ There are signs that natural disasters, to which women are particularly vulnerable, are becoming
more common. Long-term climate changes are expected to increase the incidence of extreme weather
events, such as droughts, heat waves and tropical cyclones (IPCC, 2007). There are some signs to
suggest that women are more vulnerable to these than men, largely due to social norms influencing
the construction of gender roles and overrepresentation of women amongst vulnerable groups in
society (e.g. the poor, the elderly) (Neumayer and Plü mper, 2007). These events also have an impact
upon the pool of available natural resources.
Several Structural and Cultural factors causing gender inequalities in Natural Resource Management
■ Legal systems (both formal and customary) of land ownership can discriminate against women:
■ Women may face institutional barriers when seeking to exercise influence and control over natural
resources.
■ Socio-cultural norms and practices may undermine women's access to secure natural resources. For
example, in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, the bonojibi community traditionally believe that the
forest Goddess does not permit women to enter the forest, due to their impurity. Such practices
undermine women's power to collect non-timber forest products (NTFPs) (wild honey, essential oils,
etc.), which can be an important source of extra income for them (UNREDD et al., 2013). Traditional
practices can also undermine women's rights to water and land. For instance, women farmers are
often allocated the most marginal and vulnerable lands.
■ Social norms may also impact upon women's ability take full advantage of markets. Relative to men,
women may have trouble in taking full advantage of markets, for example due to lower rates of
literacy and limited access to private transport, information and commercial networks. In some areas,
women are more like to sell domestic crops in local markets, whereas men more likely to focus on
national/international markets.
Ways to address gender inequalities in Natural Resource Management:
■ Make use and create demand for sex-disaggregated data, for example on land tenure and the
membership of forest user groups and water user associations.
■ Ensure that women’s needs and priorities are voiced, understood and addressed.
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■ Avoid reinforcing gender inequalities, by ignoring the existing gender relations and power
disparities between women and men.
■ Plan gender-specific actions, to address problems relating more particularly to one or the other
gender, either as separate initiatives or as part of larger programmes. For instance, women-focused
enterprises and cooperatives can be an important way of strengthening women's position in the
market, especially their bargaining power (UNREDD et al., 2013).
■ Adopt longer term “transformative” perspectives, supporting women’s participation in decision-
making and changing prevalent negative attitudes on women’s leadership capacities and social roles
■ Engage men, creating awareness on gender disparities and proving the benefits of gender equality
for communities.
Gender aspects of climate change
Global climate change is expected to have serious impacts on the world’s natural resources and the
livelihoods of those who depend on them. Climate related disasters and increasing climate variability
force people to adapt. Gender is an important factor in climate change debates and particularly in
adaptation to climate change. The relation between gender and climate change can in simple terms be
described as follows: 1. The poor are most vulnerable to climatic changes and have the least capacity
to adapt. As 70% of the poor is female, women will suffer disproportionally. 2. Women are
disproportionally affected by diseases and disasters, both as persons as well as in their capacity as
caretakers of family members; Climate change will have major impacts on subsistence agriculture,
because it has a relatively high dependence on natural endowments; Climate change will have a major
impact on water availability. Since domestic water use does not tend to get priority (yet) over others
forms of water use (irrigation, large scale hydro, etc.), women will be disproportionally affected;
Climate change will cause an increase in malaria, and women are particularly vulnerable to malaria.
Also, pregnant women are more vulnerable to diseases in general, and climate change will increase
the occurrence of diseases; The same goes for disasters: women tend to be less protected, and
therefore will suffer more from the predicted increase in weather-related disasters. 3. Women play a
much more important role in domestic water provision, subsistence agriculture, post-disaster
management. They have a lot of practical knowledge about sustainable, small-scale land and water
use, as well as of disaster management. This presents and opportunity as well as a risk: Women have
knowledge that has not been explored yet, and not translated into policies. This knowledge is a non
recognised source of innovative ideas that will potentially increase adaptive capacities on local as well
as national levels; Current policy processes lack participation by women. Therefore, these processes
neglect a potential source of innovative knowledge. At the same time, by not taking the potential and
needs of women into account, they threaten to increase women’s vulnerability to climate change, and
decrease their adaptive capacities, e.g. by focusing on large-scale, high-tech and centralised ‘solutions’
that do not allow female participation in management and implementation

Social Impact Assessment:

Social Impact Assessment includes the processes of analysing, monitoring and managing the intended
and unintended social consequences, both positive and negative, of planned interventions (policies,
programs, plans, projects) and any social change processes invoked by those interventions. Goldman
and Baum (2000:7) define Social Impact Assessment (SIA) as a method of analyzing what impacts
actions may have on the social aspects of the environment.
Its primary purpose is to bring about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human
environment.
Advantages of SIA:

 Identifying Affected Groups: SIA helps in identifying people and groups who affect or are
affected by the project
 Allying Fears and Winning Trust: SIA can help allay fears of affected groups and build a basis
of trust and cooperation which is so essential for successful project implementation

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  Avoiding Adverse Impacts: SIA provides the basis for preparing mitigation measures to
avoid, reduce or manage adverse impacts
 Enhancing Positive Impacts: SIA preparation also helps identify measures to
maximize/share project benefits
 Reducing Costs: Addressing social impacts at an early stage helps to avoid costly errors in
future
 Getting Approval Faster: A well prepared SIA demonstrates that social impacts are taken
seriously and helps in getting project clearance faster

Stages in Social Impact Assessment (SIA)

A social impact assessment process, as WCD (2000) envisaged, should be built on three elements:

 A detailed assessment of the socio-economic conditions of the people who may be negatively
affected (Cernea’s risk assessment model can be useful);
 A detailed study of the impacts in terms of the extent of displacement, the loss of livelihoods,
the second-order impacts as a result of submergence, construction mitigation measures,
downstream impacts, and host communities; and
 A detailed plan to mitigate these impacts and an assessment of the costs of such measures.

40 This chapter outlines the steps involved in carrying out the Social Impact Assessment process,
and includes suggestions on how to follow them. (IOCPGSIA 1994)

Step 1: Define the Impact Area

The first step is to define the Area of Impact. The size of the area varies according to a project. A dam
submerges a large, contiguous geographic area affecting several villages. The impact from a highway
and other linear projects occurs along the corridor as small strips of land on either side of the road.
The SIA team must get a map showing clearly demarcated area that will be affected by the project
(both directly and indirectly).
In addition, field visit to the area needs to be undertaken to have a better understanding of the
geographic limits of the area and the people living there.

Step 2: Identify Information/Data Requirements and their Sources

Review the existing data on impacts likely to follow from the project to see if that could be used for
assessment purposes. This may provide disaggregated data according to caste, religion, sex and other
administrative categories, such as persons below poverty line. The secondary should be checked as
much for its adequacy as for its reliability.
This review will also help identify the need for collection of additional primary data through surveys
and participatory methods.

Step 3: Involve All Affected Stakeholders

Share information and consult with all stakeholders. Stakeholders are people, groups, or institutions
which are likely to be affected by a proposed intervention (either negatively or positively), or those
which can affect the outcome of the intervention. Develop and implement an effective public
involvement plan to involve all interested and affected stakeholders. The first step in developing plans
for consultation and participation is to identify stakeholders who will be involved in the consultative
processes. The basic questions to consider in identifying stakeholders include:

 Who will be directly or indirectly and positively and negatively affected?

 Who are the most vulnerable groups?

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  Who might have an interest or feel that they are affected?
 Who supports or opposes the changes that the project will produce?
 Whose opposition could be detrimental to the success of the project?
 Whose cooperation, expertise, or influence would be helpful to the success of the project?

Step 4: Conduct Screening

Social Impact Assessment (SIA) process begins with screening. Screening is undertaken in the very
beginning stages of project development. The purpose of screening is to screen out “no significant
impacts” from those with significant impacts and get a broad picture of the nature, scale and
magnitude of the issues.
This helps in determining the scope of detailed SIA that would be subsequently carried out.

Step 5: Carry Out Scoping in the Field

The next step is scoping. Essentially, this involves visit to the project site, and consultation with all
stakeholders. It is important to confirm their understanding of key issues. On-site appreciation of
impacts is indispensable for projects that cause displacement on a large scale. The local knowledge
can be invaluable in finding alternatives that help avoid or at least reduce the magnitude and severity
of adverse impacts.
This is an initial assessment of likely impacts and not meant to determine the level of impact. It should
only identify all of the issues and affected groups to get ‘all the cards on the table’
The next step is undertaking Social Impact Assessment and the following are the major activities:

Step 6: Prepare a Socioeconomic Profile of Baseline Condition

To assess the extent of social impacts, it is necessary to assess the socio-economic conditions of the
affected people. This assessment generally involves conducting a socioeconomic survey and a broad
based consultation with all affected groups.
The socioeconomic profiling should not be restricted to adversely affected population. The survey
should include those who benefit from the employment and other economic opportunities generated
by the project.

Step 7: Survey of Host Population

This survey is carried out to see that in the host area enough land, income earning opportunities and
other resources exist to sustain additional population from the affected area, and that this influx does
not put pressure on local resources that the host population may resent. The other important thing to
see is that the people being relocated and the hosts are socially from a similar socio-cultural
background. The similarity in background helps greatly reduce social/ethnic frictions.

Step 8: Identify and Assess the Impacts

Once the range of impacts that are predictable has been identified, the next step is to determine their
significance (that is, whether they are acceptable, require mitigation, or are unacceptable). Since many
impacts are not quantifiable, it is impossible to rank them objectively. The community perceptions of
an impact and those of the SIA team are not necessarily the same. The affected people should
therefore be consulted in ranking impacts.
If impacts are found unacceptable, the SIA must clearly state that giving reasons. Generally, the Social
Impact Assessment is expected to result in specific mitigation plans to address relevant
social/resettlement issues and potential impacts.

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Step 9: Develop a Mitigation Plan

Develop a mitigation plan to firstly avoid displacement, secondly to minimize it, and thirdly to
compensate for adverse impacts. The major contribution of a SIA study is to help plan for, manage,
and then mitigate any negative impacts (or enhance any positive ones) that may arise due to a
proposed project.

Step 10: Monitoring

After the mitigation plan has been implemented, it should be monitored. A monitoring programme
should be developed that is capable of identifying deviations from the proposed action and any
important unanticipated impacts. This should track project and program development and compare
real impacts with projected ones. It should spell out (to the degree possible) the nature and extent of
additional steps that should take place when unanticipated impacts or those larger than the
projections occur.

Principles of SIA:
(1): Involve the Diverse Public

It is important to first identify all potentially affected groups and individuals, and involve them
throughout the SIA process. This involvement must reach out to groups that are routinely excluded
from decision making due to cultural, linguistic and economic barriers (lower caste and tribal groups,
minorities and poor people). The involvement should be truly interactive, with communication
flowing both ways between the agency and affected groups. This engagement will ensure that
stakeholder groups understand what the project is about and the possible ways it might affect them,
both positive and negative.

(2): Analyze Impact Equity

Projects affect different groups differently. Impacts should therefore be specified differentially
for affected groups, not just measured in the aggregate. Identification of all groups likely to be affected
is central to the concept of impact equity. There will always be winners and losers as a result of the
decision to build a dam or undertake some other development work. SIA should identify who will win
and who will lose, but no groups and individuals that are considered vulnerable due to race, ethnicity,
caste, gender, occupation, age or other factors should have to bear the brunt of adverse social impacts.

(3): Focus the Assessment

Often, time and resources available for doing social impact assessment are very limited. In such
circumstances, the best course is to focus on the most significant social impacts, giving high priority to
impacts identified by the people themselves. It is well known that some groups low in power do not
usually participate in project preparation stage, but SIA must ensure that their concerns are fully
addressed. At the same time, the role of SIA practitioners in impact analysis and assessment remains
important. They have the expertise to help prioritize issues, and are able to identify impacts often
missed out by the people themselves.

In addition to impacts on households, an accurate assessment of loss to the community assets

also needs to be carried out. This impact assessment should include the following: (a) Common
property resources, (b) Public structures, (c) Cultural property, and (d) Infrastructure

(4): Identify Methods and Assumptions and Define Significance

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 SIA should use easily understood methods and assumptions that are transparent and
replicable. The methods and assumptions used in the SIA should be made publicly available. A brief
summary should clearly describe the methods used, the assumptions made, and the significance of
impacts determined. This will allow decision makers as well as affected people to evaluate the
assessment process.

(5): Provide Feedback on Social Impacts to Project Planners

The SIA findings are inputs for designing a project to mitigate negative impacts and enhance
positive impacts. The project design process must ensure that all affected and interested persons get
an opportunity to comment on the draft before it is given a final shape.

(6): Use SIA Practitioners

Trained social scientists using social science research methods alone will get the best results.
An experienced SIA practitioner will know what data to look for. His familiarity with impacts that have
occurred elsewhere under similar settings will be an asset. It will be easier for him to identify the full
range of impacts and then select procedures appropriate for their measurement. The presence of a
social scientist in the interdisciplinary team will reduce the probability of any major social impact
remaining uncounted.

It is extremely important that the SIA practitioner be an independent social scientist, not a part
of the regulatory authority sponsoring the SIA study.

(7): Establish Monitoring and Mitigation Programmes

The monitoring of important social impact variables and the mitigation programmes is critical
to the SIA process. The monitoring and mitigation should be a joint responsibility of the project and
the affected community.

A social impact assessment not only predicts the likely impacts, it should also identify means to
mitigate those adverse impacts. Mitigation includes: avoiding the impact by not undertaking the
project; or undertaking it with a modified design that reduce the impact; or by compensating for
unavoidable and/or irreducible impacts.

(8): Identify Data Sources

Generally, SIAs draw on the following three sources of information: (a) Published scientific
literature, (b) Secondary data sources including various government documents and official reports,
and (c) Primary data from the affected area. All these three sources are important, but not all projects
may need them in equal measure. Some SIAs may require more primary data from the affected area
than the published materials from journals or books, for example.

The SIA can usefully consult previously published social science books, journal articles that
document knowledge of impacts and case studies from similar projects. The best secondary data
sources include census, compendium of statistics, land records data, and several government planning
and development reports. Survey research, informant interviews, and participant observation are
among the important primary data sources that can be used to verify data collected from other
sources. Often, project area people are quite knowledgeable about the local socioeconomic situation
and can provide a better understanding of the broader range of likely impacts.

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(9): Plan for Gaps in Data

Often, data relevant and necessary to carry out an assessment is not available yet the SIA is to
be carried out. In circumstances when information is incomplete or unavailable, it should be made
abundantly clear that assessment has been made in the absence of relevant and necessary data,
explaining why this could not be obtained.

Social Impacts:
Social Impacts are the changes that occur in communities or to individuals as a result of an externally-
induced change. IOCPGSIA (2003: 231) defines social impacts as “the consequences to human
populations of any pubic or private actions that alter the ways in which people live, work, play, relate
to one another, organize to meet their needs, and generally cope as members of society. The term also
includes cultural impacts involving changes to the norms, values, and beliefs that guide and rationalize
their cognition of themselves and their society.” Social Impacts are both positive and negative.
Changes may effect: employment, income, production, way of life, culture, community, political
systems, environment, health and well-being, personal and property rights, and fears and aspirations.
These impacts can be positive or negative. In short, a social impact is a significant improvement or
deterioration in people’s well-being.
Examples of projects with significant social impacts include: dams and reservoirs (disruption due to
relocation), power and industrial plants (influx of work force, pressure on infrastructure), roads and
linear projects (dislocation of activity networks), and landfill and hazardous waste disposal sites (seen
as health risks).
Social/Cultural
 Break-up of community cohesion
 Disintegration of social support systems
 Disruption of women’s economic activities
 Loss of time-honoured sacred places of worship
 Loss of archeological sites and other cultural property
Economic
 Loss of agricultural lands, tress, wells
 Loss of dwellings and other farm buildings
 Loss of access to common property resources
 Loss of shops, commercial buildings
 Loss of businesses/jobs
 Overall reduction in income due to above losses

Public Infrastructure and services

 Government office buildings
 School buildings
 Hospitals
 Roads
 Street lighting

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