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Ecology and Ecosystem

“Ecology is the study of the relationships among organisms and the relationship between
them and their surroundings”.
“The scientific study of interactions among/between organisms and their environment”.
These surroundings are called the environment of the organism.

Concepts in Ecology:
The term “ecology” was coined by combining two Greek words, oikos (house or dwelling place),
and Logos (the study of), to denote the relationship between organisms and their environment.
Ecology is a multidisciplinary enterprise, which cannot be made to fit into one channel of
scientific inquiry: it ranges from reductionism in the study of individual species populations,
through less reductionist approaches in the study of communities, to the holistic in the studies of
the totality of communities on earth.
It is like an enormous puzzle in which each organism has requirements for life which interlock
with those of the many other individuals in the area. Although some of these individuals belong
to the same species, most of them are very different organisms with very different ways of living
or interacting.
The study of these ecological relationships from the point of view of a single species (as
illustrated in the figure) is called autecology. If all the species living together are studied as a
community, then this study is called synecology.

The basic concepts of ecology include the following:

 All living organisms and the environment they live in are mutually reactive, affecting
each other in various ways.
 Environment plays a major role in the critical stages of the life cycle of the species.
 The species reacts to the environmental changes and adjusts itself structurally and
physiologically.
 The environment also changes according to certain species- specific activities like
growth, dispersal, reproduction, death, decay, etc.
 All plants and animals are related to each other by their coaction and reaction on the
environment.

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 Under similar climatic conditions, there may simultaneously develop more than one
community, some reaching the climax stage, and others under different stages of
succession.

Ecosystem Ecology:
A group of individual organisms of the same species in a given area is called a population.
While, a group of populations of different species in a given area is called a community. And, an
ecosystem or an ecological system is the whole biotic community in a given area and its abiotic
environment. It therefore includes the physical and chemical nature of the sediments, water and
gases as well as all the organisms.
An ecosystem can be any size, from an area as small as a pinhead to the whole biosphere. The
term was first used in the 1930s to describe the interdependence of organisms among themselves
and with the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) environment. At ecosystem level, the units of
study are comparatively very large and there are no practical units, if the nature is conceived as a
single, giant ecosystem.
The overall view of this type of approach is that living organisms and their non-living
environment are inseparably interrelated and interact with each other. Keeping this view in mind,
A.G. Tansley in 1935 proposed the term “ecosystem”. Eco implies the environment, and
‘system’ ‘implies an interacting, interdependent complex.
Ecosystem Ecology emphasises the movements of energy and nutrients (chemical elements)
among the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.

Concepts of an Ecosystem:
Following are the basic concepts of an ecosystem:
i. When both biotic and abiotic components are considered, the basic structural and functional
units of nature are ecosystems.
ii. There exist varying degrees of positive, negative and even neutral interactions among
organisms at both inter- and intra-specific levels.
iii. Energy is the driving force of an ecosystem which is unidirec-tional or non-cyclic.
iv. The chemical components of the ecosystem move in a defined path called biogeochemical
cycles.

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v. Successful growth of the organism is governed by limiting factors. The minimal and
maximum levels of tolerance for all species vary seasonally, geographically and according to the
population.
vi. Under natural conditions, different kinds of population undergo succession.

Kinds of Ecosystem:
These are categorised as under:
1. Natural Ecosystems:
These operate under natural conditions without any major interference by man. These are further
divided into
i. Terrestrial:
Forest, grassland, desert, etc.
ii. Aquatic:
These may be further classified as (a) freshwater and (b) marine

2. Artificial Ecosystems:
These are maintained artificially by humans where, by addition of energy and planned
manipulations, natural balance is disturbed regularly. For example, croplands like wheat, rice
fields, etc., where humans try to control the biotic community as well as the physio- chemical
environments, are artificial ecosystems.

Structure of an Ecosystem:
An ecosystem has two major components:
1. Abiotic (non-living) component:
It includes inorganic substances, inorganic chemicals and climate of the given region.
• air
• water
• rainfall
• temperature
• soil
• rocks
• elevation

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• humidity
2. Biotic (living) component:
It can be further classified as:
(i) Autotrophic component
(ii) Heterotrophic component—Further divided as:
(a) Macroconsumers: herbivores, carnivores, omnivores
(b) Microconsumers: bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi

Functional Aspects of an Ecosystem:

The functional aspects of an ecosystem include the following:
 The rate of biological energy flow, i.e., the production and respiration rates of the
community
 The rate of materials or nutrient cycles
 Biological or ecological regulation including both regulation of organisms by
environment and regulation of environment by the organism.

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Interdependence between living organisms

Ecological Levels of Organization

What does it mean to be interdependent?

Do species live alone, or do many live in communities with other organisms? All species rely on
other species in some way in order to survive. They may rely on other species for food, shelter or
to help them reproduce. Here the bee is helping the flower spread its pollen. Species are not
independent, they are interdependent.

Interdependence of Living Things

Biological interactions are the interactions between different organisms in an environment. In

the natural world, no organism is cut off from its surroundings. Organisms are a part of their

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environment which is rich in living and non-living elements that interact with each other in some
way. The interactions of an organism with its environment are vital to its survival, and the
functioning of the ecosystem as a whole.

These relationships can be categorized into many different classes. The interactions between
two species do not necessarily need to be through direct contact. Due to the connected nature
of ecosystems, species may affect each other through such relationships involving shared
resources or common enemies.

Interdependence among Living Organisms

1. A species is a group of living organisms that are similar and able to mate and produce their
young.
2. A population is organisms of the same species that live and reproduce together in a habitat.
For example:
- A grassland may have a population of wild buffaloes and horses.
- A pond may have a population of water weeds, tadpoles and fish.
3. A community is when differents populations of plants and animals live in the same area or
habitat.
For example:
- The mangrove trees, mudskippers, crabs, prawns and many other organisms make up
the mangrove community.
4. A habitat is the place where animals live. An organism can find food and shelter in its
habitat.
Animals Habitat
Caterpillar Plants
Tick Bodies of mammals
Fish Seas, lakes or ponds
Crabs Mangrove swamps
Termites Soil

5. Organisms interact with other organisms, of the same or different species. At the same time,
organisms interact with the non-living factors of the environment.

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6. The non-living factors are called physical factors.

Examples: sunlight, water, tides, soil, temperature and pH.
7. An ecosystem is a complex system of organisms that live and interact with each other and
their habitat.
8. The different types of habitat within a forest ecosystem are in the soil, on the ground, under
stones and rocks, on the trees and in streams.
9. Organisms depend on other organisms and their surroundings for survival.
For example:
- In a mangrove ecosystem, the crabs and mudskippers interact with other organisms such
as trees and other plants, as well as physical factors such as the water level, amount of
salt and sunlight.
10. Examples of interdependence among living organisms and the environment to create a
balanced ecosystem are as follows:
(a) Plants depend on water, sunlight and soil to grow
(b) Animals eat plants as their food
(c) Animals also eat other animals for food
(d) When living organisms die, microorganisms decompose their bodies
(e) Decomposed organisms give back nutrients to the soil
(f) Plants use these nutrients for food
11. A balanced ecosystem has
(a) a constant number of organisms.
This is achieved because the birth rate and the death rate of the species are similar.
(b) A constant composition and amount of gases in the air, water and soil.
(c) A constant composition and amount of minerals in the soil.

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Interaction between Living Organisms

Most of the interactions between living organisms are related to the need for food. Such
interactions are prey-predator interaction, competition and symbiosis.
Prey-Predator Interaction
- A predator is an animal that catches and kills another animal (prey).
- The size of the prey population is affected by the size of the predator population and vice
versa.
Competition
- Competition is an interaction in which two organisms compete for the same resources,
such as food, space, light, water and mates.
- Competition may exists between organisms of the same species or different species.
Symbiosis
- Symbiosis is an interaction which may benefit only one, or both of the organisms
involved.
- The benefits involved may be in the form of food, shelter or protection.
There are three types of symbiotic interactions:
- Commensalism is an interaction between two organisms, in which one benefits without
harming or benefiting the other.
Example:
o The interaction between Remora and sharks. Remora attaches itself to the
underside of a shark. Remora will pick up food scraps when the shark feeds. It
will protected against other predators. The shark is not harmed.
o The interaction between human beings and the bacteria living in the large
intestine.
- Parasitism is an interaction between two organisms which benefits one organism (the
parasite) but harms the other (the host). Tape worm is a parasite that lives in its human
host and absorbs the digested food in it’s host’s intestine.
- An interaction which benefits both of the organisms involved is called mutualism.
Mutualism occurs in lichens which consists of algae and fungi. The fungi provide the
algae with water and minerals. The algae provide the fungi with food.

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The Importance of Interaction between Living Organisms

• Organisms need food and water to survive. For example, trees make food using sunlight,
water and soil around them.
• Organisms need shelter and a certain range of temperature to survive. For example, tigers
and tropical trees can only live in the tropical climate.
• Forests help to contain floods and erosion, thus maintaining a stable environment around
them.

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Functions of Ecosystem: Food Chain, Food Web & Pyramids

A food chain may be defined as the transfer of energy and nutrients from the source in plants
through a series of organisms with repeated processes of eating and being eaten. For example,
the marsh vegetation is eaten by the grasshopper the grasshopper is consumed by shrew, the
shrew by the marsh hawk or owl.
The green plants (autotrophs) synthesize food using solar energy and various inorganic
constituents (water, carbon dioxide, etc.) of eco-system. The food manufactured by the green
plants is utilised by themselves and also by the herbivores.
The herbivores are consumed by some carnivorous animals. In this way, one form of life is
supported by the other form. Thus, food from one trophic level reaches the other trophic level
and a chain is established which is known as food chain.
A food chain may be defined as the transfer of energy and nutrients from the source in plants
through a series of organisms with repeated processes of eating and being eaten. For example,
the marsh vegetation is eaten by the grasshopper the grasshopper is consumed by shrew, the
shrew by the marsh hawk or owl.

A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism eats
another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The flow of
nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food chain.
The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between living organisms.
Trophic level refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers at the

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bottom, followed by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food chain is
known as a trophic level.

The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:

 The Sun: The sun is the initial source of energy, which provides energy for everything
on the planet.
 Producers: The producers in a food chain include all green plants. This is the first stage
in a food chain. The producers make up the first level of a food chain. The producers
utilize the energy from the sun to make food. Producers are also known as autotrophs as
they make their own food. Producers are any plant or other organisms that produce their
own nutrients through photosynthesis. For example, green plants, fruits, phytoplanktons,
small plants, and algae are some examples of producers in a food chain.
 Consumers: Consumers are all organisms that are dependent on plants or other
organisms for food. This is the largest part of a food web, as it contains almost all living
organisms. It includes herbivores which are animals that eat plants, carnivores which are
animals that eat other animals, parasites are those organisms that live on other organisms
by harming them and lastly the scavengers, which are animals that eat dead animals’
carcasses.
Here, herbivores are known as primary consumers and carnivores are secondary consumers. The
second trophic level includes organisms that eat producers. Therefore, primary consumers or
herbivores are organisms in the second trophic level.
 Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms that get energy from dead or waste organic
material. This is the last stage in a food chain. Decomposers are an integral part of a food
chain, as they convert organic waste materials into inorganic materials like nutrient-rich
soil or land.
Decomposers complete a life cycle, as they provide nutrients to soil or oceans, that can be
utilized by autotrophs or producers. Thus, starting a whole new food chain.

Thus, a relationship is established:

Marsh grass → Grass hopper → Shrew → Marsh hawk

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It is estimated that only about 10 per cent of the potential energy available at the previous trophic
level is being available to an organism. The efficiency of a food chain is, therefore, dependent on
the number of trophic levels or links in a food chain. The shorter the food chain, the more is the
amount of energy available to the last trophic levels in an eco-system.
In all the eco-systems, energy moves as per the direction given below:

Sun → Producer → Consumer → Decomposer

Sun → Autotroph → Heterotroph.

Food chains are of three types:

(a) Grazing or Predator food chain.
(b) Parasitic food chain.
(c) Saprophytic or detritus food chain.

(a) Grazing or Pasturing Food Chain:

This food chain starts from green plants (producers), passes through the herbivore (primary
consumers) and ends with carnivore (secondary or tertiary consumers).

The total energy assimilated by green plants is subjected to three important processes:
(i) It may be oxidised in respiration.
(ii) It may die and decay.
(iii) It may be eaten by herbivorous animals.

Like green plants, the disposition of energy in herbivores takes place by either respiration or
decay of organic matter by microbes or consumption by carnivore. The primary carnivores eat
herbivore and secondary carnivore eat primary carnivore. The total energy in herbivores takes by
decay of organic matter by microbes The primary carnivore eat herbivore eat primary carnivore.
The total energy assimilated by primary carnivore is derived entirely from the herbivore and its
disposition in to respiration, decay and further consumption by other carnivore is entirely similar
to that of herbivore. Thus, the grazing food chain is more effective or efficient as most of the
primary production is passed on through different trophic levels and only a small fraction goes to
the decomposer system.

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A grazing food chain can be described in terms of trophic levels as shown below:
Autotroph→ Herbivore→ Primary Carnivore →Secondary
Carnivore→ Tertiary Carnivore → Decomposer etc.

(b) Parasitic food chain:

This food chain starts from herbivore but food energy passes from larger to smaller organism
without outright killing as in case of predator. Hence, the larger animals are considered to be the

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hosts and the smaller animals which fulfill their nutritional requirements from the hosts are
considered as parasites.

(c) Saprophytic or Detritus Food chain:

In this food chain, the dead organic matter or organic wastes (metabolic wastes and extrudates)
of eco-system go to the micro-organisms and finally to detritus feeding organiss known as
detrivore. The energy stored in detritus serves as a source of energy for detrivore. This type of
food chain is less efficient as the major portion of energy is lost to the eco-system without being
properly used.

Food Chain of Different Eco-Systems:

Grassland eco system:

Grass →Grasshopper →Toad→ Snake
Grass→ Rat→ Snake→ Hawk
Grass→ Goat→ Man→ Tiger

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Forest eco system:

Plant→ Deer→ Lion
Plant→ Deer→ Tiger
Plant→ Goat→ Tiger

Pond eco-system:
Phytoplankton→ Zooplanktons→ Small fish→ Big fish.

Food Web:
Several interconnected food chains form a food web. A food web is similar to a food chain but
the food web is comparatively larger than a food chain. Occasionally, a single organism is
consumed by many predators or it consumes several other organisms. Due to this, many trophic
levels get interconnected, and the food chain fails to showcase the flow of energy in the right
way. But, the food web is able to show the proper representation of energy flow, as it displays
the interactions between different organisms.

When there are more cross interactions between different food chains, the food web gets more
complex. This complexity in a food web leads to a more sustainable ecosystem.

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