Five types of ecological relationships

Organisms occupy what are called niches. A niche includes the physical space in which they live, how they use the
resources that are in that space, and how they interact with other organisms in that space. The interaction among
organisms within or between overlapping niches can be characterized into five types of relationships: competition,
predation, commensalism, mutualism and parasitism.

Predation: One Wins, One Loses

Predation is when one organism eats another organism to obtain nutrients. The organism that is eaten is called the prey.
The organism that eats is called the predator. While it's most often associated with the classic predator-prey interaction, in
which one species kills and consumes another, not all predation interactions result in the death of one organism. In the
case of herbivory, a herbivore often consumes only part of the plant.

Examples of predation are snakes that eat mice, and lions that eat deers, chickens that eat grasshoppers, birds that eat
worms. Frogs that eat mosquitoes, horses that eat grass, grasshoppers that eat cabbages etc…

Competition: The Double Negative

Competition is a negative interaction that occurs among organisms whenever two or more organisms require the same
limited resource. All organisms require resources to grow, reproduce, and survive. Organisms, however, cannot acquire a
resource when other organisms consume or defend that resource. Therefore, competitors reduce each other's
growth, reproduction, or survival.

interference and Exploitation

Biologists typically recognize two types of competition: interference and exploitative competition. During interference
competition, organisms interact directly by fighting for scarce resources. For example, large aphids (insects) defend feeding
sites on cottonwood leaves by kicking and shoving smaller aphids from better sites.

In contrast, during exploitative competition, organisms interact indirectly by consuming scarce resources. For example,
plants consume nitrogen by absorbing it into their roots, making nitrogen unavailable to nearby plants. Plants that produce
many roots typically reduce soil nitrogen to very low levels, eventually killing neighboring plants.
Within Species and Between Species

Competition can occur between individuals of the same species, called intraspecific competition, or between
different species, called interspecific competition. Studies show that intraspecific competition can regulate population
dynamics (changes in population size over time). This occurs because individuals become crowded as a population grows.
Since individuals within a population require the same resources, crowding causes resources to become more limited.
Some individuals (typically small juveniles) eventually do not acquire enough resources and die or do not reproduce. This
reduces population size and slows population growth
species also interact with other species that require the same resources. Consequently, interspecific competition can alter
the sizes of many species' populations at the same time. Experiments demonstrate that when species compete for a limited
resource, one species eventually drives the populations of other species extinct. These experiments suggest that competing
species cannot coexist (they cannot live together in the same area) because the best competitor will exclude all other
competing species. Why then do communities seem to have many competing species that coexist in the same area?

Competition is when individuals or populations compete for the same resource, and can occur within or between species.
When organisms compete for a resource (such as food or building materials) it is called consumptive or exploitative
competition. When they compete for territory, it is called interference competition. When they compete for new territory
by arriving there first, it is called preemptive competition. An example is lions and hyenas that compete for prey.
In the natural environment, competition between organisms plays an important role in ecology and evolution, and this
could not be more important for organisms of the same species. Known as intraspecific competition, organisms of the same
species compete for a variety of reasons, including a lack of food resources. This type of competition serves to limit a
species' population and thereby ensure its sustainability and survival
Reasons for Intraspecific Competition
The reasons for intraspecific competition are not necessarily very different from interspecific competition, or competition
between different species. Competition is much like what humans call economics: it is the way in which organisms decide
who will use the Earth's scarce resources. Because of this, competition between organisms of the same species will be most
apparent during times when a resource is limited. Ecological change that leads to the depletion of an animal's primary food
supply, for example, is one of the most common causes of intraspecific competition. Some animals, however, exhibit
intraspecific competition during more ecologically normal times. Many animals use intraspecific competition to limit their
overall population numbers, which ensures they do not overstretch their food or other resources, even when they are
abundant.
Trout and Population Densities
Brown river trout are a good example of a species that self-limits itself through intraspecific competition. These species do
not self-limit based specifically on a food resource, but they limit themselves to match a certain limited amount of space.
This is called density dependent intraspecific competition. The trout adjust their rate of fertility to match their rate of
mortality so that they maintain a perfectly constant density within a certain zone. Graphing over a longer period of time
reveals that the trout do extremely well in subconsciously ensuring that they maintain a constant density. This is a
competition that negatively impacts those who lose and fail to reproduce.
Insects and Resource-Weighted Density
Some organisms instinctively compete and limit their population numbers based on an "equation" that maintains a
constant ratio between them and a vital food resource. Some insects, for example, will weight their population to a specific
plant that they regularly consume. This case operates by allowing an insect to maintain a specific number of insects per unit
of plants. So, if an insect maintains a ratio of ten insects per plant, and there are ten plants, then the insects will collectively
defeat or kill any excess of this number, and thereby ensure that they only have enough individual insects to survive given a
particular number of food resource plants.
Extreme Competition and Cannibalism
Intraspecific competition often works by the adage "desperate times call for desperate measures." Sharks are a good
example of this phenomenon, because during times of especially scarce food resources, sharks resort to the ultimate form
of competition: cannibalism. Instead of competing with other species for new food resources, sharks simply start to eat
each other. Other animals, such as rodents, exhibit this behavior more regularly, with mothers often eating their young.
This happens because they foresee scarce food resources, and know they cannot adequately provide for the food of their
young. While most animals try to avoid cannibalism, extreme times often reduce them to the act, and this sometimes even
includes humans.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed. Examples are
barnacles that grow on whales and other marine animals. The whale gains no benefit from the barnacle, but the barnacles
gain mobility, which helps them evade predators, and are exposed to more diverse feeding opportunities. There are four
basic types of commensal relationships. Chemical commensalism occurs when one bacteria produces a chemical that
sustains another bacteria. Inquilinism is when one organism lives in the nest, burrow, or dwelling place of another species.
Metabiosis is commensalism in which one species is dependent on the other for survival. Phoresy is when one organism
temporarily attaches to another organism for the purposes of transportation.
One of the popular examples of commensalism is the relationship between cattle egrets and livestock. The cattle egret is a
common species of heron that is found in most regions of the world, and is mostly seen moving along with herds of cattle.
This bird moves about in the pastures, and follows livestock such as cattle and horses. The cattle egret eats up the insects
hiding under vegetation close to the grounds, which get stirred up when the cattle walk through them.

Commensalism: A Positive/Zero Interaction

An interaction where one species benefits and the other remains unaffected is known as commensalism. As an example,
cattle egrets and brown-headed cowbirds forage in close association with cattle and horses, feeding on insects flushed by
the movement of the livestock. The birds benefit from this relationship, but the livestock generally do not. Often it's
difficult to tease apart commensalism and mutualism. For example, if the egret or cowbird feeds on ticks or other pests off
of the animal's back, the relationship is more aptly described as mutualistic.
Orchids Growing on Branches of Trees
Orchids belong to a family of flowering plants that form a commensal relationship with the trees. It is a well-known
epiphytic plant that grows on the branches or trunks of other trees. Orchids are usually found in dense tropical forests.
They form their base of attachment on the branches of trees, and benefit by getting adequate sunlight and nutrition that
flows down the branches. The orchids do not grow to a large size, and thus the host tree is not harmed in any way.
Remora Fish and Sharks
The remora, also called suckerfish, belongs to a family of ray-finned fish. It is a small fish growing up to a size of 1 to 3 feet.
The remora forms a special relationship with sharks and other sea organisms like whales and turtles. It has special suckers
attached to its fins. It attaches itself to the bodies of sharks, and uses the shark for transportation as well as protection
from its predators. It also eats up the scraps of food that are left over when the shark eats its prey.
Monarch Butterfly and Milkweed
The Monarch butterfly is a well-known type of butterfly found commonly in the North American region. At the larval stage,
it forms a commensal relationship with certain species of milkweeds. The milkweeds contain a poisonous chemical known
as cardiac glycoside, which is harmful to almost all vertebrates. The Monarch stores these poisonous chemicals in its body
throughout its lifespan. When a bird eats a Monarch butterfly, it finds it distasteful, and gets sick. Thus, they avoid eating it.
Barnacles and Whales
The barnacles are a type of crustaceans that are sedentary, i.e. they cannot move on their own. At their larval stage, they
stick to the bodies of other organisms like whales, and other places like shells, rocks, or even ships, and grow on their
surface. While the whales are on the move, the barnacles catch hold of floating plankton and other food material using
their feather-like feet. This way, they get the nutrition and transportation, and the whale is not harmed or benefited in any
manner.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is harmed, but not always killed. The
organism that benefits is called the parasite, and the one that is harmed is the host. Parasitism is different from
parasitoidism, which is when the host is always killed, such as when one organism lays its egg inside another organism that
is later eaten by the hatchlings. Parasites can be ectoparasites -- such as ticks, fleas, and leeches -- that live on the surface
of the host. Parasites can also be endoparasites -- such as intestinal worms – that live inside the host. Endoparasites can be
further categorized into intercellular parasites, that live in the space between cells, or intracellular parasites, which live
inside of cells. There is also something called hyperparasitism, which is when a parasite is infected by another parasite,
such as a microorganism living in a flea, which lives on a dog. Lastly, a relationship called social parasitism is exemplified by
an ant species that does not have worker ants, living among another ant species that do, by using the host species’
workers.
Examples Of Parasitism by Kate Broome
Parasitism examples range from annoying mosquitos that bite you when you’re outside to fleas and ticks biting dogs to
fungi attached to trees and barnacles living on a crab’s shell,
By definition, parasitism is where the parasite lives in (or on) a host and causes harm to the host. This can occur in plants,
animals, and even insects and can cause a significant amount of damage, possibly killing its host. Check out this guide to
learn all about parasitism.
What Is A Parasite?
When you think about parasitism you more than likely think about parasites. According to Dictionary.com (found here), a
parasite is: an organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits by deriving nutrients at the host’s
expense
Parasites can be any kind of organisms such as worms, parasitic bugs, and even humans. The host of the parasites can be
seriously affected and at times can even die. A majority of all the parasitic organisms in the world cannot be seen by the
human eye, making their threat to a host somewhat concerning. An important thing to note is that parasites are not a
“disease”, even though the symptoms of having a parasite might look like some sort of a disease.
Types And Examples Of Parasites
There are three primary types of parasites:
Ectoparasites
These parasites live on the host Includes lice, fleas, ticks, etc.
Protozoa
These parasites are single cell organisms that live inside the host Examples include Plasmodium, Balantidium, etc.
Helminths
These are worm parasites (they can reside in their host’s intestines, heart, etc.)
Includes roundworms, hookworms, heartworms, Let’s go over some examples of parasitism now.
Symptoms Of A Parasite
Parasites can oftentimes have symptoms that mimic diseases, which makes them difficult to narrow down if someone is
sick of has a parasite.
Some general symptoms of parasites include:
Fever, Rashes, Diarrhea, vomiting, stomach ache, Insomnia, Suppressed appetite, Muscle weakness

There are also times when there are no symptoms, so many people don’t know that there is some sort of parasitic
infection.
Parasitism Examples
A mosquito is an example of an ectoparasite. Image source: Pixabay
Protozoa Parasite Examples
These are the single cell parasites that can affect living organisms. Examples are:
Plasmodium Falciparum, also known as Malaria
This parasite is the cause of malaria, the blood disease that has affected many people in tropical regions. Malaria symptoms
are fever, vomiting, drowsiness, and can even lead to death. It is spread primarily by mosquitos that introduce the parasite
into the host’s body.
Balantidiasis, also known as B Ecoli
This parasite primarily affects pigs, but it has been known to infect humans as well. This parasite infects the intestines and
can cause diarrhea or constipation. This is spread by drinking water or eating contaminated food.
Acanthamoebiasis
This single cell parasite is found all across the globe and affects the skin, brain, and even the host’s eyes. This parasite can
be found in water and soil. The primary way to get this is if you clean your contact lenses with tap water instead of contact
solution.
Coccidiosis
This parasite lodges itself in its host’s intestines that can cause severe diarrhea (which can be bloody). This can affect
humans, cats, dogs, and other animals. It is spread through contact with infected tissue or with feces.
Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, also known as PAM
This is quite possibly one of the nastier parasite example found on this list. This parasite affects the brain and the nervous
system, killing its host within a matter of 1 day to about 2 weeks. The spread of this parasite is pretty interesting (and
scary); if someone breathes in near a contaminated site, such as a swimming pool or soil, they oftentimes become infected.
This is not spread, however, from drinking water.
Helminth Parasite Examples
Helminth parasites are worm parasites that can infect humans and animals. If you are a pet owner you are probably
familiar with a few different helminth parasites.
Roundworm
Roundworms are the most common parasites a dog can get. These guys burrow into our dogs’ intestines and are spread by
eating or drinking anything that has been contaminated. Oftentimes our pooch won’t show symptoms except for finding
worms in their feces. Roundworms are often preventable by keeping your pet on heartworm medication and keeping their
environment clean.
Dirofilaria immitis, also known as heartworms
Speaking of heartworms, this is a parasite you are probably very familiar with. Heartworms can affect dogs, cats, horses,
humans, and many other mammals, and they can be fatal if untreated. Heartworms are 12 inch long works that reside in
your pet’s hearth, blood vessels, and even their lungs. This causes severe heart problems as well as other diseases. A way
to prevent heartworms is to keep your pet on heartworm pills. If your pet does have heartworms it can be treated with the
use of heartworm prevention medication.
Whipworm
This worm lives in the large intestine and can affect humans. Its larva is spread through poop (and unwashed fruits and
veggies) and is found all over the world.
Ectoparasite Examples
Lastly, these parasites live on their hosts and can affect different kinds of living organisms. You can expect to find
ectoparasites feeding off of humans, animals, and plants.
Phthiraptera, also known as lice
We all remember lice from school, right? Lice live off of sucking their host’s hair and pulling nutrients from it, as well as our
scalps. There are three types of lice that humans can harbor: body lice, head lice, and pubic lice. Lice can be treated with
special shampoo and lice combs.
Mistletoe
What we often associate with Christmas festivities is actually a parasite. Mistletoe attaches to a host tree and leeches out
water and nutrients from it. This can lead to the host tree dying. Interestingly enough, there are many animals who eat
mistletoe as part of their diet, and that is how mistletoe is spread to other trees and shrubs.
Mutualism
Mutualism is a relationship in which both species benefit. Mutualistic interaction patterns occur in three forms. Obligate
mutualism is when one species cannot survive apart from the other. Diffusive mutualism is when one organism can live
with more than one partner. Facultative mutualism is when one species can survive on its own under certain conditions. On
top of these, mutualistic relationships have three general purposes. Trophic mutualism is exemplified in lichens, which
consist of fungi and either algae or cyanobacteria. The fungi's partners provide sugar from photosynthesis and the fungi
provide nutrients from digesting rock. Defensive mutualism is when one organism provides protection from predators
while the other provides food or shelter: an example is ants and aphids. Dispersive mutualism is when one species receives
food in return for transporting the pollen of the other organism, which occurs between bees and flowers.

Mutualism: Everyone Wins

Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in the mutualistic relationship
between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photsynthesizing alga supplies the fungus with nutrients, and gains
protection in return. The relationship also allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare
case, mutualistic partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services in
exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with the reproductive
structures.in smooth functioning of an ecosystem.
Each and every organism on the planet is a part of the ecosystem and thus, has to interact with various other organisms in
the environment for basic survival. In biology, this interaction is known as 'biological interaction'. Such interactions don't
just facilitate the survival of species, but also ensure that the ecosystem―as a whole―functions in a smooth manner.
There are different types of biological interactions which are categorized on the basis of the behavior of the organisms
involved, namely neutralism, amensalism, competition, antagonism, and ecological facilitation. The last in the lot,
'ecological facilitation' is further divided into commensalism and mutualism. One has to go through some examples of
these two in order to understand the intricate details involved.
What is Mutualism?
Mutualism is biological interaction between two species wherein both the species benefit from each other. The term
'mutualism' is attributed to the fact that both organisms are mutual beneficiaries of the interaction process. One of the
best examples of the same is the relationship between reindeer and microorganisms in its gut in the Tundra biome. The
reindeer on its part provides food to these microorganisms when it feeds. In turn, these microorganisms help it digest its
food.
If such biological interaction is observed within two organisms belonging to the same species, it is known as co-operation.
Many people tend to use the two terms, mutualism and symbiosis interchangeably, which is technically incorrect.
Examples of Mutualism
As we mentioned earlier, mutualism is one of the three types of symbiotic relationships; the other two being
commensalism and parasitism. Within mutualism, there are three types: (i) trophic mutualism, (ii) dispersive mutualism,
and (iii) defensive mutualism. Each of these three―along with examples―are discussed below.
Trophic Mutualism: Resource-Resource Benefit
This is a type of mutual relationship wherein both species involved benefit in the form of resources. The relationship
between the coral polyps―organisms which come together to form corals―and zooxanthellae―a single-celled algae which
lives within the coral polyps―is one of the best trophic mutualism examples. In this case, coral polyps depend on the
photosynthesis process carried out by zooxanthellae, while zooxanthellae depend on nitrogen which the coral polyps
derive from hunting at night.
Dispersive Mutualism: Resource-Service Benefit
The pollination process involving angiosperms (flowering plants) and insects (such as bees and wasps) is the best example
of this form of mutualism. While the insects are resource beneficiaries, i.e., they derive food resource in the form of nectar,
plants benefit from pollination carried out by these insects, which helps them reproduce. Interestingly, several species of
plants tend to mimic insects to facilitate the entire process. For instance, the floral structure and color of various orchid
species closely resembles a female wasp, owing to which male wasps are deceived into the process of pollination.
Defensive Mutualism: Service-Service Benefit
Defensive mutualism is the relationship shared by two organisms wherein one organism depends on other for protection
against predators or parasites and returns the favor by providing food and shelter to its protector. The best example of
defensive mutualism is the relationship shared by ants belonging to the genus Pseudomyrmex and various Acacia tree
species. While the ants take shelter on Acacia trees and defend these trees from parasites, they get benefited from shelter
and food (parasites) provided by the tree.
Other than the different types mentioned above, some sources also divide mutualism into two types: obligate mutualism,
wherein two organisms are dependent on each other to such an extent that one cannot survive without other, and
facultative mutualism, wherein even though the two organisms are dependent on each other, they can survive without
each other. While the Acacia tree and ants example given above is the best example of obligate mutualism, wherein both
species cannot exist without each other, the wasp and orchid example is the best example of facultative mutualism,
wherein both are dependent, but can survive without each other.
Ecological relationships describe the interactions between and among organisms within their environment. These
interactions may have positive, negative or neutral effects on either species' ability to survive and reproduce, or "fitness."
By classifying these effects, ecologists have derived five major types of species interactions: predation, competition,
mutualism, commensalism and amensalism.

Amensalism: A Negative/Zero Interaction

Amensalism describes an interaction in which the presence of one species has a negative effect on another, but the first
species is unaffected. For example, a herd of elephants walking across a landscape may crush fragile plants. Amensalistic
interactions commonly result when one species produces a chemical compound that is harmful to another species. The
chemical juglone produced in the roots of black walnut inhibit the growth of other trees and shrubs, but has no effect on
the walnut tree.