Ecological relationships describe the interactions between and among organisms within

their environment. These interactions may have positive, negative or neutral effects on
either species' ability to survive and reproduce, or "fitness." By classifying these effects,
ecologists have derived five major types of species interactions: predation, competition,
mutualism, commensalism and amensalism.

Predation: One Wins, One Loses

Predation includes any interaction between two species in which one species benefits
by obtaining resources from and to the detriment of the other. While it's most often
associated with the classic predator-prey interaction, in which one species kills and
consumes another, not all predation interactions result in the death of one organism. In
the case of herbivory, a herbivore often consumes only part of the plant. While this
action may result in injury to the plant, it may also result in seed dispersal. Many
ecologists include parasitic interactions in discussions of predation. In such
relationships, the parasite causes harm to the host over time, possibly even death. As
an example, parasitic tapeworms attach themselves to the intestinal lining of dogs,
humans and other mammals, consuming partially digested food and depriving the host
of nutrients, thus lowering the host's fitness.

Competition: The Double Negative

Competition exists when multiple organisms vie for the same, limiting resource.
Because the use of a limited resource by one species decreases availability to the
other, competition lowers the fitness of both. Competition can be interspecific, between
different species, or intraspecific, between individuals of the same species. In the
1930s, Russian ecologist Georgy Gause proposed that two species competing for the
same limiting resource cannot coexist in the same place at the same time. As a
consequence, one species may be driven to extinction, or evolution reduces the
competition.

Mutualism: Everyone Wins

Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example
exists in the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The
photsynthesizing alga supplies the fungus with nutrients, and gains protection in return.
The relationship also allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism
alone. In rare case, mutualistic partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food
rewards without providing pollination services in exchange. These "nectar robbers"
chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with the reproductive structures.

Commensalism: A Positive/Zero Interaction

An interaction where one species benefits and the other remains unaffected is known as
commensalism. As an example, cattle egrets and brown-headed cowbirds forage in
close association with cattle and horses, feeding on insects flushed by the movement of
the livestock. The birds benefit from this relationship, but the livestock generally do not.
Often it's difficult to tease apart commensalism and mutualism. For example, if the egret
or cowbird feeds on ticks or other pests off of the animal's back, the relationship is more
aptly described as mutualistic.
Ecological communities consist of interacting or potentially interacting
species in the same environment. The direct interactions between species
are divided into various categories. Sometimes these complex
interactions and the flow of energy through the system are diagrammed
in food webs, which display the movement of energy from lower to higher
trophic, or feeding, levels.

There are six ecological relationships in which two are oppositional and
four are symbiotic. The oppositional relationships are :

⇒ Predation and

⇒ Competition. 

The symbiotic relationships are:

 Mutualism
 
 Commensalism
 
 Amensalism
 
 Parasitism.
Symbiotic relationships :The word symbiosis literally means 'living
together,' but when we use the word symbiosis in biology, what we're
really talking about is a close, long-term interaction between two
different species. There are many different types of symbiotic
relationships that occur in nature.

In many cases, both species benefit from the interaction. This type of
symbiosis is called mutualism. An example of mutualism is the
relationship between bullhorn acacia trees and certain species of
ants. Each bullhorn acacia tree is home to a colony of stinging ants. True
to its name, the tree has very large thorns that look like bull's horns. The
ants hollow out the thorns and use them as shelter. In addition to
providing shelter, the acacia tree also provides the ants with two food
sources. One food source is a very sweet nectar that oozes from the tree
at specialized structures called nectaries. The second food source is in the
form of food nodules called beltian bodies that grow on the tips of the
leaves. Between the nectar and the beltian bodies, the ants have all of
the food they need.

So, the ants get food and shelter, but what does the tree get? Quite a lot
actually, you see the ants are very territorial and aggressive. They will
attack anything and everything that touches the tree - from grasshoppers
and caterpillars to deer and humans. They will even climb onto
neighboring trees that touch their tree and kill the whole branch and clear
all vegetation in a perimeter around their tree's trunk, as well. The ants
protect the tree from herbivores and remove competing vegetation, so
the acacia gains a big advantage from the relationship. In this case, the
acacia is considered ahost because it is the larger organism in a symbiotic
relationship upon or inside of which the smaller organism lives, and the
ant is considered to be a symbiont, which is the term for the smaller
organism in a symbiotic relationship that lives in or on the host.

a) Mutualism

Mutualism is an interaction characterized by

mutual benefit, so both species benefit from
the relationship. A flowering plant producing
nectar to attract an animal, such as a bee, is
one example. The bee benefits by feeding on
the nectar, while the plant benefits because
the bee goes on to disperse the plant's pollen.
Mutualism can also be thought of as "mutual
exploitation."

Other well-known example of mutualism is the relationship between

ungulates (such as Bovines) and bacteria within their intestines. The
ungulates benefit from the cellulase produced by the bacteria, which
facilitates digestion; the bacteria benefit from having a stable supply of
nutrients in the host environment.

Mutualism plays a key part in ecology. For example, mutualistic

interactions are vital for terrestrial ecosystem function as more than 48%
of land plants rely on mycorrhizal relationships with fungi to provide them
with inorganic compounds and trace elements. In addition, mutualism is
thought to have driven the evolution of much of the biological diversity
we see, such as flower forms (important for pollinationmutualisms) and
co-evolution between groups of species. However mutualism has
historically received less attention than other interactions such as
predation and parasitism.

Mutualistic transversals can be thought of as a form of "biological barter"

in mycorrhizal associations between plant roots and fungi, with the plant
providing carbohydrates to the fungus in return for primarily phosphate
but also nitrogenous compounds. Other examples include rhizobia
bacteria that fix nitrogen for leguminous plants in return for energy-
containing carbohydrates.

b) Commensalism is an association between two different species where

one species enjoys a benefit, and the other is not significantly
affected. Commensal
ism is sometimes
hard to prove
because in any
symbiotic
relationship, the
likelihood that a very
closely associated
organism has no
effect whatsoever on
the other organism is
pretty unlikely. But,
there are a few
examples  where
commensalism does
appear to exist. For
example, the cattle
egret follows cattle, water buffalo, and other large herbivores as they
graze. The herbivores flush insects from the vegetation as they move,
and the egrets catch and eat the insects when they leave the safety of
the vegetation. In this relationship the egret benefits greatly, but there is
no apparent effect on the herbivore.

Some biologists maintain that algae and barnacles growing on turtles and
whales have a commesalistic relationship with their hosts. Others
maintain that the presence of hitchhikers causes drag on the host as it
moves through the water and therefore the host is being harmed, albeit
slightly. In either case, it is unlikely that the fitness of the host is really
affected by the hitchhikers, so commensa lism is probably the best way to
describe these relationships as well.

c) Parasitism: It is relationship between two species of plants or animals

in which one benefits at the expense of the other, sometimes without
killing the host organism. Unlike predators, parasites typically do not kill
their host, are
generally much smaller
than their host, and
will often live in or on
their host for an
extended period. Both
are special cases of
consumer-resource
interactions.

Parasites may be
characterized as
ectoparasites—
including ticks, fleas,
leeches, and lice—
which live on the body
surface of the host and
do not themselves
commonly cause
disease in the host; or
endoparasites, which
may be either intercellular (inhabiting spaces in the host’s body)
orintracellular (inhabiting cells in the host’s body). Intracellular parasites
—such as bacteria or viruses—often rely on a third organism, known as
the carrier, or vector, to transmit them to the host. Malaria, which is
caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodium transmitted to humans
by the bite of an anopheline mosquito, is an example of this interaction.
The plantailment known as Dutch elm disease (caused by the fungus
Ceratocystis ulmi) can be spread by the European elm bark beetle.
Parasites reduce host biological fitness by general or specialized
pathology, such as parasitic castration and impairment of secondary sex
characteristics, to the modification of host behavior. Parasites increase
their fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival,
e.g. food, water, heat, habitat, and transmission. Although parasitism
applies unambiguously to many cases, it is part of a continuum of types
of interactions between species, rather than an exclusive category. In
many cases, it is difficult to demonstrate that the host is harmed. In
others, there may be no apparent specialization on the part of the
parasite, or the interaction between the organisms may remain short-
lived.

d) Amensalism: It is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to

another organism without any costs or benefits received by the other. A
clear case of amensalism is where sheep or cattle trample grass. Whilst
the presence of the grass causes negligible detrimental effects to the
animal's hoof, the grass suffers from being crushed. Amensalism is often
used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as
has been observed between the Spanish ibex and weevils of the genus
Timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of
the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of
ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they
consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the
weevils upon it.

Oppositional relationships 

i) Predation: Predation describes one species, the predator, feeding on

and typically killing another organism, the prey species. Predators use
various methods to capture prey, just as their prey use various methods
to avoid capture. Herbivory is comparable to predation, but herbivores
feed on plants rather than animals.
Herbivores do not necessarily kill a
plant they feed on but sometimes put
pressure on the plant species.

The best-known examples of predation

involve carnivorous interactions, in
which one animal consumes another. Think of
wolves hunting moose, owls hunting mice, or
shrews hunting worms and
insects. Less obvious carnivorous interactions involve many small
individuals consuming a larger one. Such group predation is common
among social carnivores such as lions, hyenas, and wolves. Group
predation also occurs with ants and social spiders. This is, however, only
part of the picture. Seed consumption can sometimes constitute
predation. Seeds are considered organisms. Under ideal circumstances,
seeds grow to become plants. However, consumption of a seed kills the
plant before it can grow, making seed consumption an example of
predation. 

ii) Competition: It describes multiple organisms fighting for the same

resources. Interspecies competition is competition between different
species; intra species competition is competition between organisms of
the same species. The competition may or may not involve active
interference. Squirrels and deer may both eat acorns in a site but do not
directly fight for the acorns and instead make fewer acorns available for
the other. Alternatively, competition may involve direct interference, like
when a plant secretes chemicals from its roots to keep other plants from
growing around it. The more similar two species in a community are, the
more competitive they are with each other, fighting for limited resources.

Intra species competition: Organisms competing can be from within

the same species for example, two male elk fighting for a female mate.
Elephants also fight each other so that the dominant elephant will get to
breed with the female.
Another species that shows great competition between each other are the
dolphins. Dolphins go along together and play with each other, but when
it is time to eat; all dolphins have to compete for a meal.

Interspecies competition: Competition can be also found in two

different species. A lizard and a frog can compete for a similar food they
eat such as a small insect. This type of competition is only found when
two different species share an ecological niche that they must compete
over.

"No man is an island.” This saying is also true for organisms in an

ecosystem. No organism exists in isolation.  Individual organisms live
together in an ecosystem and depend on one another.  In fact, they have many
different types of interactions with each other, and many of these interactions
are critical for their survival.

So what do these interactions look like in an ecosystem? One category of

interactions describes the different ways organisms obtain their food and
energy. Some organisms can make their own food, and other organisms have
to get their food by eating other organisms. An organism that must obtain
their nutrients by eating (consuming) other organisms is called a consumer,
or a heterotroph. While there are a lot of fancy words related to the sciences,
one of the great things is that many of them are based on Latin or Greek
roots. For example, heterotroph becomes easier to remember when you
realize that in Greek, “hetero” means “other” and “troph” means food; in
other words, heterotrophs eat other organisms to get their food. They then use
the energy and materials in that food to grow, reproduce and carry out all of
their life activities. All animals, all fungi, and some kinds of bacteria are
heterotrophs and consumers. .

Some consumers are predators; they hunt, catch, kill, and eat other animals,
the prey. The prey animal tries to avoid being eaten by hiding, fleeing, or
defending itself using various adaptations and strategies. These could be the
camouflage of an octopus or a fawn, the fast speed of a jackrabbit or impala,
or the sting of a bee or spines of a sea urchin. If the prey is not successful, it
becomes a meal and energy source for the predator. If the prey is successful
and eludes its predator, the predator must expend precious energy to continue
the hunt elsewhere. Predators can also be prey, depending on what part of the
food chain you are looking at. For example, a trout acts as a predator when it
eats insects, but it is prey when it is eaten by a bear. It all depends on the
specific details of the interaction. Ecologists use other specific names that
describe what type of food a consumer eats: carnivores and herbivores are
meat eaters and plant eaters, respectively. Omnivores eat both animals and
plants. Once again, knowing the Latin root helps a lot:  "vor" means "to eat or
devour," as in "voracious.” Put "-vore" at the end of a scientific term for a
kind of food, and you have described what an organism eats. For example,
an insectivore is a carnivore that eats insects, and a frugivore is an herbivore
that eats fruit. This may seem like a lot of terminology, but it helps scientists
communicate and immediately understand a lot about a particular type of
organism by using the precise terms.

Not all organisms need to eat others for food and energy. Some organisms
have the amazing ability to make (produce) their own energy-rich food
molecules from sunlight and simple chemicals.  Organisms that make their
own food by using sunlight or chemical energy to convert simple inorganic
molecules into complex, energy-rich organic molecules like glucose are
called producers or autotrophs. And here’s another quick Greek lesson:
“auto” means “self” and “troph” still means “food.” So autotrophs are self-
feeding; they make their own food. Plants, algae, and microscopic organisms
such as phytoplankton and some bacteria, make energy-rich molecules (in
other words, their food) from sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide during the
process called photosynthesis (“photo” means “light, and “synthesis” means
“to make” – photosynthesizers are using sunlight to make food). Some
producers are chemosynthesizers (using chemicals to make food) rather than
photosynthesizers; instead of using sunlight as the source of energy to make
energy-rich molecules, these bacteria and their relatives use simple chemicals
as their source of energy. Chemosynthesizers live in places with no sunlight,
such as along oceanic vents at great depths on the ocean floor.

No matter how long you or a giraffe stands out in the sun, you will never be
able to make food by just soaking up the sunshine; you will never be able to
photosynthesize. You’ll just get sunburned and thirsty and will still need to
go eat another organism if you are hungry. Producers use the food that they
make and the chemical energy it contains to meet their own needs for
building-block molecules and energy so that they can do things such as grow,
move, and reproduce. When a consumer comes along and eats a producer, the
consumer gets the building-block molecules and the chemical energy that is
in the producer’s body. All other life depends on the energy-rich food
molecules made by producers – either directly by eating producers, or
indirectly by eating organisms that have eaten producers. Not surprisingly,
ecologists also have terms that describe where in the food chain a particular
consumer operates. A primary consumer eats producers (e.g., a caterpillar
eating a leaf); a secondary consumer eats primary consumers (e.g., a robin
eating the caterpillar). And it can go even further: a tertiary consumer eats
secondary consumers (e.g., a hawk eating the robin). A single individual
animal can act as a different type of consumer depending on what it is eating.
When a bear eats berries, for example, it is being a primary consumer, but
when it eats a fish, it might be a secondary or a tertiary consumer, depending
on what the fish ate!

All organisms play a part in the web of life and every living thing will die at
some point.  This is where scavengers, detritivores (which eat detritus or
parts of dead things), and decomposers come in.  They all play a critical role
that often goes unnoticed when observing the workings of an ecosystem. 
They break down carcasses, body parts and waste products, returning to the
ecosystem the nutrients and minerals stored in them.  This interaction is
critical for our health and health of the entire planet; without them we would
be literally buried in dead stuff. Crabs, insects, fungi and bacteria are
examples of these important clean-up specialists.
Another category of interactions between organisms has to do with close,
usually long-term interaction between different types of organisms. These
interactions are called symbiosis. The impacts of symbiosis can be positive,
negative, or neutral for the individuals involved. Organisms often provide
resources or services to each other; the interaction is mutually beneficial. 
These “win-win” symbiotic interactions are known as mutualism (+ +). For
example, ants living in a tree may protect the tree from an organism that
would like to make the tree its next meal, and at the same time the tree
provides a safe home for the ants. Symbiotic relationships are not always
positive for both participants. Sometimes there are definite losers.
In parasitism (+ -), for example, the parasite benefits and the host is harmed,
such as when a tick sucks blood out of a dog. Predation (+ -) is another
winner-loser relationship but it is not symbiosis. The predator benefits and
the prey is harmed lethally, but it is a short-term interaction. In parasitism,
the parasite does not usually kill its host, but just feeds on it for a long time
while it is living.

Other symbiotic interactions, called commensalism (+ 0), are beneficial for

one organism, but do not affect the other in a positive or a negative way. The
interaction is seemingly neutral for one of the organisms. For example, a
barnacle attached to a whale is able to travel thousands of miles collecting
and filtering food from the moving water.  The whale doesn’t seem to be
affected by the little hitchhikers. But then again, maybe those little
hitchhikers are actually creating a tiny amount of additional drag as the whale
moves through the water and therefore the whale has to expend just a little bit
of additional energy. If so, that would be a negative impact for the whale.
Often, further research reveals that what was originally thought to be neutral
for one participant and therefore an example of commensalism, actually has a
very subtle positive or negative impact, so the classification is no longer
commensalism, but rather mutualism or parasitism. Is a bird nest on a tree
limb commensalism, or is there some slight advantage or disadvantage for the
tree in having the nest there? It is possible to come up with plausible
explanations either way; only detailed research could provide the necessary
information to answer the question.

Competition is an interesting example of interactions. When two organisms

compete or fight for the same limited resource such as food, shelter, a mate,
or sunlight, there is usually a winner and a loser (+ -), but if the competitors
fight literally to the death and kill each other, the interaction has become
negative for both (- -). Competition is also an interesting example because it
is just as likely to be intraspecific as interspecific (language alert: the prefix
“intra” means “within” and the prefix “inter” means "between"). An
intraspecific interaction occurs within a species (e.g., two bull elephant seals
competing for a harem of females or two English ivy plants competing for
space and sunlight), and an interspecific interaction occurs between members
of different species (e.g., when two different species of corals compete for
space and sunlight on a coral reef by trying to outgrow each other). If the
competition is long-term and occurs between two different species, it would
be another example of symbiosis.

In summary, there are many different kinds of interactions between

organisms in an ecosystem and it is not unusual for any particular organism
to wear many hats and play multiple roles at different times. For example, we
humans are consumers and predators when we hunt, kill, and eat other
animals such as a fish or a deer, or when we eat chicken we have purchased
at the grocery store or a restaurant. We also have many mutualistic
relationships with other organisms, such as our pets. Competition also occurs
between humans for resources, even mates! Interactions between organisms,
including humans, are the nature of life and have tremendous impact on the
functioning and health of ecosystems.

Ecological relationship
An ecological relationship is the relationship between an organism in its ecosystem. All organisms
in an ecosystem are connected in one way or another. Each interaction depends on the one before
it. Each population interacts with one another in a complex web of relations. Ecological relationships
help better to describe how they are connected.
There are ecological relationships in which two are oppositional and four are symbiotic. The
oppositional relationships are predation and competition. The symbiotic relationships
are mutualism, commensalism, amensalism , neutralism , cooperationand parasitism.
The ecological relationship an organism has depends on the way the organism adapted to its
environmental pressures on evolutionary basis.
Oppositional relationships
Predation
Main article: Predation

This is where one organism hunts and eats the other organism. The organism hunting is called
the predator, while the organism being hunted is called the prey. Energy received from the Sun is
transferred from animals when the prey is eaten by the predator. The predator now has its prey's
energy.

A predator is usually a carnivore that hunts, kills and eats other animals. For example, a snake
eating a mouse: the snake is considered the predator because it is consuming the mouse. In another
example, a striped marlin is a predator. It lives in the Pacific Ocean and preys on sardines, also a
Pacific animal. Similarly, various birds eat earthworms.
However, a predator can become the prey of another larger predator; for instance, a snake may
become a meal for a hawk.
"In ecology, predation is a mechanism of population control. Thus, when the number of predators is
scarce, the number of prey should rise. When this happens, the predators would be able to
reproduce more and possibly change their hunting habits. As the number of predators rise, the
number of prey decline. This results in food scarcity for predators that can eventually lead to the
death of many predators."
Because of this, predation is called a "positive-negative" relationship. (Campbell) There is also
Cannibalism. It is a more grade of predation. This is where in one population the organisms eat each
other due to scarcity of food sources. (Lurdes Isufaj) Ex. Frogs are known for cannibalism too.
Herbivore–plant predation

The prey does not necessarily have to be an animal, but can also be a plant. When prey is a plant,
the relationship would be called an herbivore plant relationship.
A perfect example of this would be," Galapagos tortoises e cactus plants that grow on the
Galapagos Islands." (Bar-Yam, 2011).
Another example are the koalas. They have a special digestive system that allows them to break
down tough eucalyptus leaves and remain unharmed by its poison (National Geographic).
Finally, a squirrel is the herbivore (predator) and the nuts he eats are the plant (prey).
Diagraming predator–prey relationships

 Food Webs

The species that make up an ecosystem are connected in complex "food webs" of eater and
eaten. Food webs show interconnectedness, especially between predators and their prey.
When one species disappears, its predators can no longer eat it and its prey is no longer
eaten by it. Changes in these populations affect others.

 Energy Pyramids

An energy pyramid is a way of showing how energy flows through an ecosystem specifically
on a certain food chain (predators and their prey).
Energy – The energy for all living things comes from the sun
Producers – Plants that capture the light energy and turn it into chemical energy (stored in
sugar)
Consumers – Organisms that can't make their own food
Carnivores – Consumers that eat animals
Ex. Chetha eat Mouse
Herbivores – Consumers that eat plants (producers)
Ex. Chipmunks and Armadillos
Omnivores – Consumers that eat both animals and plants
Ex. Badgers
Scavengers are consumers that eat dead animals
Ex. Vultures
Decomposers are consumers that eat and/or break down waste products
Ex. Fungus and Mold
Process for making an energy pyramid
1. Start with a food web
2. Find a food chain within the food web
3. Identify the trophic levels (Trophic Level-Steps in a food chain/energy pyramid)
4. Add the source of energy (usually the sun, but may also be chemosynthetic bacteria found
near underwater volcanoes.)
5. Show the amount of energy in every movement
6. Show the energy that is lost
Competition
Main article: Competition_(biology)

Competition is when organisms compete for the same resources. This

is a negative relationship because both organisms are harming each
other (Campbell).

Intraspecies competition
Organisms competing can be from within the same species for
example, two male elk fighting for a female mate. Elephants also fight
each other so that the dominant elephant will get to breed with the
female.
Another species that shows great competition between each other are
the dolphins. Dolphins go along together and play with each other, but
when it is time to eat; all dolphins have to compete for a meal.
Interspecies competition
Competition can be also found in two different species. A lizard and a
frog can compete for a similar food they eat such as a small insect. This
type of competition is only found when two different species share an
ecological niche that they must compete over.
Competitive exclusion principle
"Direct competition between different species almost always produces a
winner and a loser- and the losing species dies out," or is forced to
migrate to another ecosystem which can support them (Levine, 2010).
This is the competitive exclusion principle. This principle says that two
species that need the same resources cannot survive together in the
same habitat. One organism will eventually die off, thus, called.

Symbiotic relationships
Mutualism
Main article: Mutualism_(biology)

in which organisms benefit from each other. This is a positive

relationship.
An example of this would be the bee and flower. Bee gets nectar and
honey from flower. The bee contributes back to the flower by spreading
the pollen so that the flowers can reproduce.This is a very common
contribute to both the flower and the bee, they both rely on each other
to survive.
Another example would be when the ox pecker lands on an impalas
back and eats the ticks that are a parasite to the impala. The ox pecker
is benefited because it gets a meal from the tick and the impala gets
benefited because the tick is no longer on it. Similarly, monkeys pick
fleas from other monkeys which benefits both because its like a treat.
There is a mutualistic relationship between spider crabs and algae. The
algae live on the crabs' backs, allowing the spider crab to blend in with
its environment, so that predators can't find them. The algae get a nice
place to live, while in turn, the spider crab gets camouflaged. Thus,
both organisms are benefited. The Clownfish and Anemone would also
be a good fit for mutualism because the Anemone protects the
clownfish while the clownfish protects the Anemone. "The clownfish
benefits by having a protected home territory."
Finally, there is even a mutualistic relationship within the human body.
Bacteria live inside our intestines (getting a good place to live) and help
us break down our food and get vitamins.
Commensalism
Main article: Commensalism

Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism benefits from

another organism that is not affected. This is a positive, neutral
relationship. (Campbell)

For example, a small fish called the Pilot Fish follows underneath a
shark and when the shark eats something the pilot fish eats the scrap
pieces of the shark original kill.(Blue Planet BBC Documentary 2001).
Another example is of a birds nest in a tree. The bird is benefitting
because the tree is giving the bird shelter and the tree is not getting
anything in return.
Similarly, the transparent shrimp benefits from a reef because it hides
within it (camouflaging), but the coral is not affected.
Additionally, the relationship between an infectious disease and its
carrier, an animal such as a mosquito, could be classified as
commensalism because the mosquito is unaffected by the presence of
the disease, but the mosquito transfers it to a host in which the disease
can reproduce or spread more easily to others.
"Often, the host species provid=nsportation for the other species."
(www.Biology-Online.org) The whale and barnacles are a perfect
example of this. "Barnacles are crustaceans that have jointed legs and
shells of connected overlapping plates. Instead of crawling after food,
they glue themselves to rocks, ships, pillings, abalones, and maybe
even whales and wait for food to wash by." (Oracle, 2000). The
barnacles attach themselves to the whale. This way, the barnacle can
get food faster. This does not affect the whale so he does not take the
barnacle off.
Parasitism

Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism (the parasite)

benefits while the other(the host) is harmed. This is a positive, negative
relationship. (Campbell)( Dionne L Rice Jr)
The parasite usually lives on or inside the other organism.
For example, mosquito is a parasite, feeding on a human while
transferring the disease called Malaria. Other examples would be ticks
or fleas that live off of many large mammals. Similarly, head lice are an
example of parasitism because they feed on blood from the humans
head.
In Colorado, the pine bark beetle is a common parasite. The pine
beetles lays its eggs in the pine trees, and then when the babies are
born, they eat the layers of the tree which stops the tree from growing.
(Robbins)
"Natural Selection favors parasites that are best able to locate hosts
and feed on them."(Cambell, 1996).
https://ipfs.io/ipfs/QmXoypizjW3WknFiJnKLwHCnL72vedxjQkDDP1mXWo6uco/wiki/Ecological_relations
hip.html

http://www.skwirk.com/p-c_s-4_u-200_t-558_c-2082/nsw/science/ecology/ecology-and-
ecosystems/effects-the-living-environment

The living environment describes all the living things that interact with an organism, either directly or indirectly.
The living (or biotic) factors influence the life of an organism and includes factors such as the availability of
food, the presence of predators or competitors and disease organisms. The relationship between organisms is
sometimes beneficial but at other times it is detrimental (damaging). The effects that animals and plants have
on each other and on the habitat itself will be explored in this chapter.

Biotic factors
Living things all have an effect on one another but they also affect the non-living environment in some ways,
such as the climate and soil. In a rainforest, for example, the trees affect the soil by removing water and
nutrients and they affect the climate inside the forest by preventing extremes of temperature. The trees also
provide shelter and they are a source of food for insects, birds and mammals. When the plants, trees and
animals die, fungi and bacteria in the soil decompose the dead material and return nutrients to the soil.

Some of the biotic factors that influence where an organism can live include competition, predation and
dispersal but the most powerful and influential biotic factor on the ecosystem is the human being.

Competition
Competition is a biotic factor that influences where an organism can live. Animals and plants living in the same
area often compete with each other for space, food, shelter and light. To survive in a habitat, organisms must
either compete with each other for the available resources or interact in ways that enable them to live in the
same environment.

Interaction
The way organisms interact is important for the survival of a species. There are two types of
interaction: intraspecific interactions and interspecific interactions. Intraspecific interactions are those that
take place among organisms of the same species while interspecific interactions are those which happen
among individuals of different species.

Organisms of the same species may struggle over territory or may fight to be the dominant individual.
Sometimes the competition is harmful, for example where there is a struggle between two males fighting for a
female or fighting to be top of the hierarchy. At other times the competition and interaction can be non-harmful
and may include displays of colour, sound and other exhibitions, usually in order to attract a mate.

See Image 1

Interspecific relations are usually described according to their beneficial, neutral or detrimental or effect. One
beneficial interaction is known as commensalism. This occurs when an individual obtains a benefit from a
different species without damaging it. Mutualism is similar, but it is when both species obtain a benefit from
interacting with each other. Sometimes the interaction is obligatory and benefits both organisms. If one
individual dies however, it will lead to the death of the other. This is sometimes known as
a symbiotic relationship.

Other effects are neutral or detrimental. A neutral interaction is known as competence. Competence occurs
when two different species have the same needs but one species possesses adaptations that help it to survive
better. The struggle for survival is a selective, non-violent one. Detrimental interactions include predation,
parasitism, infectious disease and competition for limited resources. These interactions are detrimental to one
of the species.
Predation
Predation is the act of one organism catching and eating another. Every organism in an ecosystem needs
nutrients and many will get them by consuming other organisms in the habitat. The act of predation is one of
the essential concepts in food chains. Grass, for example, is consumed by herbivores which may be eaten by
carnivores, which then may be consumed by larger carnivores. Population decline occurs if there are more
predators than prey, such as when humans selectively hunt a species which leads to a decline in the
population of the species.

See Image 2

Parasitism and disease

Parasitism takes place when a species obtains a benefit from another species which gradually damages the
victim but does not cause immediate death. Disease, however, may cause immediate death and is caused by
microscopic organisms called microbes. Microbes can be classified into four main groups: viruses; bacteria;
fungi (yeasts and moulds) and protozoa. There are disease-causing microbes as well as beneficial ones.

See Animation

Dispersal
Dispersal refers to how an organism is spread throughout an ecosystem. Animals are usually able to move
freely among all ecosystems but plants rely on insects, animals or the wind to either pollinate them or disperse
their seeds. Flowers and seeds have developed unique characteristics that enable them to disperse effectively
throughout their habitat by using other living organisms or abiotic (non-living) factors.

See Image 3

The survival of an organism in a given environment is limited by abiotic factors (temperature, light, water, soil)
as well as by biotic factors (food, predators, competitors and disease) of that environment. Organisms that are
living and breeding in a habitat have adapted successfully to the living and non-living environment.

Working Together - Co-operation and mutualism

Updated Monday 7th March 2005

In an unpredictable environment, populated by predators, parasites and competitors, it often pays

to co-operate

When both partners benefit we call the relationship mutualism. Co-operating allows
organisms to increase the number of young they produce, and even to survive in
unfavourable conditions.
Who co-operates?
Co-operation can be seen in many animals, birds, and fish. Many birds, fish and grazing
animals form groups as a defence against predators. During the summer, female bats
live in maternity roosts where they rear their young together. This allows individual
females to leave their young in the relative safety of the group whilst they go and hunt
insects. Co-operation in social insects such as ants allows them to build large nest
structures and to share tasks, such as defence and foraging, efficiently.
Mutualistic relationships also exist between very different species. As anyone who picks
blackberries in autumn will know, many plants produce seed-containing fruits that are
attractive to animals. Birds and mammals eat the fruit and transport the seeds to new
habitats in their droppings. This is not a free ride for the plant, it has to use energy to
produce attractive fruits and seeds with a hard coating, which prevent them being
digested. However, the benefit of being able to colonise new places is worth this extra
effort.
Many flowering plants have evolved relationships with pollinators, who spread pollen
between plants. The flowers offer nectar, a sugary liquid, and sacrifice some pollen as
food to attract pollinators. The pollinators in return are dusted with pollen, which they
carry between flowers. This allows pollen from one plants to be transferred to another
individual and is known as cross-pollination or outbreeding.
Animal pollinators and plants have co-evolved, with plants producing flowers optimised
to attract pollinators, and pollinators developing mouthparts optimised to extract nectar
from flowers. Whilst many plants are pollinated by a variety of animal species, some
have very close relationships with specific animal pollinators.
Close associations
When the relationship between two co-operating species becomes so intertwined that
they become dependent upon one another for survival it is usually known as symbiosis.
Living together has allowed some species to survive in the most inhospitable habitats.
The barren face of a rock provides little in the way of shelter or nutrients, but lichens
often thrive on them. Although we identify individual lichens as ‘species’ they are made
up two species - an alga, which can photosynthesis and accumulate sugars, and a
fungus that provides the structure of the partnership and stores water.

Mutualism Examples
The term mutualism refers to a relationship in biology or sociology that is mutually beneficial to two
living things. This relationship can be within the species, between living things from two different
species, between individuals in a society and between two societies. Each participant in the
mutualistic relationship is called a symbiont.

Common Examples of Mutualism

 Oxpeckers and zebras or rhinos - In this relationship, the oxpecker (a bird) lives on the zebra
or rhino, sustaining itself by eating all of the bugs and parasites on the animal.
The bird benefits by having a readily available source of food.
The zebra or rhino benefits from having the bugs removed. Also, when there is a danger to the zebra
or the rhino, the oxpecker flies high and makes much noise in order to alert nearby animals to the
impending danger (i.e. a predator).
 Digestive bacteria and humans - Human beings have what are often called "good" bacteria in
their digestive systems. This "good" bacteria exists in order to help the human to digest food.
Some foods cannot be digested entirely; so, when these foods are consumed, the bacteria in the
digestive system feed on those foods.
The bacteria stay alive.
The human gets help with the process of digestion.
 Protozoa and termites - Much like the digestive bacteria in human digestive systems,
protozoa help termites to digest the food that they eat.
The protozoa benefits by getting food for itself.
The termite benefits by being able to live.
 Sea anemones and clownfish - Clownfish are often found living amongst the tentacles of the
sea anemone. While those tentacles are able to sting nearly all other fish, the clownfish, thanks
to the mucus on its skin, is protected from the stinging.
The clownfish has a safe place to live.
The sea anemones are saved by the clownfish from being eaten by their predators, the butterfly fish.
 Spider crab and algae - With the ocean as its habitat, spider crabs often spend their time in
some of the most shallow areas of the sea making them highly visible to predators. However,
living on their backs are algae that act as camouflage.
The algae has a place to live.
The spider crab remains camouflaged and safe from predators.
 Flowers and bees - Bees and flowers have a mutualistic relationship as well. Bees get the
nectar they need to make honey by traveling between flowers. The bee brings pollen from one
plant to another, resulting in pollination.
The bee is benefitting by getting food.
The plants benefit from being pollinated.
 Humans and plants - It is a well known fact that plants and humans could not exist without
each other. This mutualistic relationship is based on the fact that:
Humans utilize the oxygen that plants give off and exhale carbon dioxide.
Plants use the carbon dioxide to create that oxygen that the humans need.
 Ants and fungus - Ants actively create fungus, sometimes using leaves and their own fecal
matter. Once the fungus grows, the ants eat it to sustain life.
The fungus is given life by the ant.
The benefit to the ant is that the fungus is food.
Now you have seen lots of examples of how mutualism works in real life.

Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship between two different organisms where one of the
organisms actually harms the other through the relationship. The organism that
is harming the other one is called a parasite.
Examples of Parasitism:
Fleas or ticks that live on dogs and cats are parasites. They are living off of the
blood of the host animal.
Lice are another type of parasite. They live off of the blood of the host animal.
Most species of cockatoos will lay their eggs in the nests of other birds, in the
hopes that the other bird will raise the babies. Cockatoos often remove an egg
(or more) from the nest to decrease suspicion over the additional eggs.
Aphids are a type of insect parasite that feed on the sap of the host plant.
There are many types of parasitic fungi that will attack various plants, fruits,
vegetables, and even animals.

Commensalism Examples
7th grade8th grade9th gradeMiddle SchoolHigh SchoolCollege

Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms where one receives a benefit or benefits
from the other and the other is not affected by it. In other words, one is benefited and the other is
neither benefited nor harmed.

Commensalism in Nature
 Anemonefishes or clownfishes - These live amid the tentacles of the anemones which
protects them from predators. Predators are poisoned by the nematocysts of the anemones.
 Atlantic puffin - These puffins use burrows for nesting that were made by rabbits.
 Bacteria (Acetobacter oxydans) - These make fructose by oxidizing mannitol. Other species
can metabolise fructose, but cannot metabolise mannitol.
 Barnacles - These will attach to whales or mollusk shells in order to be where food is
available. This also acts as transportation for them and safety.
 Burdocks - These are common weeds and dispersal of their seeds is critical to their life cycle.
Their seeds have spines or spines with hooks that will allow them to be picked up in the fur of
animals passing by. They can also attach to the clothing of humans.
 Cattle egrets - These birds live near cattle because when the cattle graze, their movements stir
up insects. The birds have their insects and the cattle are unaffected.
 Epiphytes - These are a species of plants that grow on some woody plants. Epiphytes get
their nutrients from the air and use the plants for support and access to sunlight.
 Flatworms - A flatworm attaches to a horseshoe crab and it will eat the crab's food. This does
not harm the crab.
 Gila woodpecker and small animals - The woodpecker makes holes in Saguaro cacti to get
food. The holes become homes for small mammals and birds.
 Gobies - These live on sea animals, often changing color to blend in. They do this for shelter
and protection.
 Golden jackals - Golden jackals that are no longer in a pack will trail a tiger so it can feed on
what the tiger kills.
 Hermit crabs - These crabs have to find shells for shelter and use various snail shells. These
shells are available because the snail has died; so, the snail is not affected.
 Mites - Mites will attach to wasps, flies or beetles for transportation.
 Monarch butterflies - These orange and black butterflies eat larva on milkweeds. This larva
tastes bitter and is poisonous to vertebrates and so birds learn to avoid monarchs.
 The mosquito Wyeomyia smithii - The larvae live inside the plant Sarracenia purpurea and
does not harm the plant.
 Orchids - Some orchids grow on trees and that does not harm the tree.
 Pilot fish - Pilot fish live around sharks, sea turtles and rays and eat the parasites that live on
them as well as leftover food they do not eat. Young pilot fish gather around jellyfish and
seaweeds.
 Pseudoscorpions - These look like scorpions but do not have a sting. They will sometimes
hide under the wing covers of large beetles, like the cerambycid beetle. This not only allows
them to be dispersed over a large area but protects them from predators.
 Remora sharks - These have a disk on their heads which allows them to attach to a large
animal, like a shark. As the shark eats, any extra food floats by and they can unhitch themselves
and eat.
 Seedlings - Nurse plants offer protection from frost and herbivores so the seedlings can grow.
An example is bunchgrasses needing mesquite trees as nurse plants.
 Titan Triggerfish and smaller fish - As triggerfish feed, they move large rocks, bite off pieces
of coral and stir up the sand. Since smaller fish cannot move large rocks, this presents an
opportunity for them to feed.
 Tree frog - The frog uses plants or trees for protection from the rain.

Predation Definition
Predation refers to an interaction between two organisms, predator and prey,
where there is a flow of energy from one to another. The prey usually suffers a
loss of energy and fitness, with a commensurate gain in energy for the
predator.

Examples of Predation
Examples #1: Carnivorous Predation

Cheetah hunting
Cheetahs are specialized predators built for stealth and speed. They have
excellent camouflage abilities, and powerful muscles that enable them to
reach incredibly high speeds in pursuit of their prey. Their strong jaws and
sharp teeth help to immobilize the prey and suffocate the animal.

Carnivorous predation can also be an interaction between two groups of

organisms. While many carnivores hunt prey that are much smaller than
themselves, some cooperate with other individuals of their species to bring
down larger prey. A pack of Asiatic wild dogs can pursue and hunt large bison
that are nearly 10 times the size and weight of a wild dog.

Carnivorous predation is also seen in the plant kingdom, among insectivores

such as pitcher plants and Venus flytraps. Insectivores are often found in
regions where the soil is not rich in nutrients.

One exceptional and unusual form of carnivorous predation is cannibalism.

Examples #2: Herbivory

Grazing is a form of herbivory where the plant regenerates the parts that were
eaten by the herbivore. Herbivores are adapted to their mode of feeding, with
large flat teeth to grind tough plant material. They also contain
microorganisms in their gut to digest plant-based carbohydrates.
 Giraffe grazing
Plants have been known to develop defenses against grazing. When giraffes
feed on acacia trees, the trees release a toxic substance into their leaves that
forces the giraffes to move away from them. In addition, the acacias also
release ethylene gas, which signals to trees in the vicinity to pump toxins into
their own leaves. The herbivores usually move around 300 feet (91 meters)
away to resume feeding.

In marine environments, krill are small crustaceans that feed on the primary
photosynthetic organism of the ocean – phytoplankton. Krill are crucial to the
health of the ecosystem because they are the main food source for large
mammals like blue whales.
Examples #3: Parasitism

The parasite that causes malaria, Plasmodium, infects a wide variety of animal

hosts – reptiles, birds and mammals – and causes cyclical rounds of high
fever and chills. The parasite uses two hosts – one for reproduction and the
other for transmission to a new host. In fact, malaria can be so debilitating that
its presence can exert an enormous selection pressure on the host. In regions
where the disease is endemic, human populations show a surprisingly high
incidence of another illness – sickle cell anemia. It appears that individuals
who are carriers for this genetic disease have increased survival and
reproductive fitness when confronted with malaria.
Tapeworms are common human parasites that can cause malnutrition,
especially in young children. Filarial worms are parasites that cause skin, eye
and lymphatic diseases.
 Strangler Fig
Parasitism is also seen in the plant kingdom. Strangler figs are common
tropical plants that behave like parasites. Many belong to the genus Ficus .
Their seeds germinate in the crevices of other trees, and they derive their
nutrition by dropping roots into the bark of the host tree, rather than into the
soil. Over time, the host tree dies and the strangler fig appears as a tree with
a hollow central column.
Examples #4: Mutualism

The interaction between humans and their gut flora is a classic case of
mutualism. The bacteria aid in digestion and provide protection against the
invasion of pathogenic bacteria. Recent research suggests that the collection
of all gut bacteria in an individual can have widespread impact on the host’s
metabolism, immunity and well-being.

Similarly, the root nodules of leguminous plants such as chickpea and

soybeans, play host to nitrogen fixing bacteria. The bacteria fix atmospheric
nitrogen, thereby increasing nutrient availability for the plant. In turn, the plant
provides a rich sugar solution to the bacterium.

Competition does not happen only on the sports field. Within specific habitats, organisms
compete for resources, such as water, nutrients, space, light and mates. Each living thing
has a specific niche within a given region that includes everything the organism needs to
develop, grow and reproduce. Competition occurs when organisms occupy the same or
similar niches. This can happen between different species -- interspecific competition -- or
among members of the same species, which is intraspecific competition. The natural world
is full of examples of these struggles for survival.
Competitive Relationships in
Ecosystems
By Debra Durkee; Updated April 19, 2018

A competitive relationship in a biological community includes the plant and animal

species within the ecosystem that compete over food, territories and mating with the
opposite sex. Competition occurs in virtually every ecosystem in nature. This
relationship develops when more than one organism in an environment has the same
need for resources as another to survive. Competition often results in the survival of the
fittest.

When Same Species Compete

Rivalry often occurs between members of the same species within an ecological
community, known as intraspecific competition. The most common of the competitive
relationships, animals of the same species often live together in the same community.
These individuals compete for limited resources like food, shelter and mates.

Intraspecific competition helps nature keep the population under control. When food is
limited, the environment can only feed so many individuals of the same species. This
results in the survival of the fittest, only those capable of winning against their
counterparts survive. Similar regulation occurs when individuals compete over shelter
for raising young. This is often occurs with young male lions; Animals that lose are
driven from the group and from the area.

SCIENCING VIDEO VAULT

 
When Different Species Compete

Interspecific competition occurs when members of more than one species compete for
the same resource. Woodpeckers and squirrels often compete for nesting rights in the
same holes and spaces in trees, while the lions and cheetahs of the African savanna
compete for the same antelope and gazelle prey.

Even though individual animals are competing for the same shelter or food, interspecific
competition is usually less critical than intraspecific competition. The antelope, for
example, is not the lion's only prey. Because of this, the lion can choose to compete for
antelope or to look elsewhere. Animals of different species typically compete with each
other only for food, water and shelter. But they often compete with members of their
own species for mates and territory as well.
Plant Competition

Plants also compete for space, nutrients and resources such as water and sunlight. This
competition can shape how the ecosystem looks. Taller trees shield a forest's
understory -- the ground beneath the forest's tree-top canopy -- from sunlight, making it
hard for anything to grow but the most shade-tolerant plants. The life cycles of some
plants are also impacted because many shorter plants flower and bear seeds before the
leaves of the taller trees are fully developed, which makes it possible for shorter plants
to receive sunlight.

Desert plants have developed shallow, far-reaching roots systems to successfully

compete for valuable water resources, which is an example of how competition can
affect the evolution of a species.
Evolutionary Specification

Scientists posit that competitive relationships may at least be partially responsible for
the evolutionary process. In natural selection, the individuals of a species best adapted
to the environment around them survive to reproduce and pass on the genetics that
make them well adapted. Take the giraffe for example, whose evolution of its long neck
makes it possible to eat foods with little to no competition. As an herbivore, it completes
with other grazing herbivores such as zebras and antelope for food. Giraffes with longer
necks are able to reach the leaves of high tree branches, giving them access to more
food and a better chance of passing their genetics on to their offspring.
Competition is a negative interaction that occurs among organisms whenever two or
more organisms require the same limited resource. All organisms require resources to
grow, reproduce, and survive. For example, animals require food (such as other
organisms) and water, whereas plants require soil nutrients (for example, nitrogen),
light, and water. Organisms, however, cannot acquire a resource when other organisms
consume or defend that resource. Therefore, competitors reduce each other's
growth, reproduction, or survival.

Interference and Exploitation

Biologists typically recognize two types of competition: interference and exploitative
competition. During interference competition, organisms interact directly by fighting for
scarce resources. For example, large aphids (insects) defend feeding sites on
cottonwood leaves by kicking and shoving smaller aphids from better sites. In contrast,
during exploitative competition, organisms interact indirectly by consuming scarce
resources. For example, plants consume nitrogen by absorbing it into their roots,
making nitrogen unavailable to nearby plants. Plants that produce many roots typically
reduce soil nitrogen to very low levels, eventually killing neighboring plants.

Within Species and Between Species

Competition can occur between individuals of the same species, called intraspecific
competition, or between different species, called interspecific competition. Studies show
that intraspecific competition can regulate population dynamics (changes in population
size over time). This occurs because individuals become crowded as a population
grows. Since individuals within a population require the same resources, crowding
causes resources to become more limited. Some individuals (typically small juveniles)
eventually do not acquire enough resources and die or do not reproduce. This reduces
population size and slows population growth.
Species also interact with other species that require the same resources. Consequently,
interspecific competition can alter the sizes of many species' populations at the same
time. Experiments demonstrate that when species compete for a limited resource, one
species eventually drives the populations of other species extinct. These experiments
suggest that competing species cannot coexist (they cannot live together in the same
area) because the best competitor will exclude all other competing species. Why then
do communities seem to have many competing species that coexist in the same area?

The Competitive Exclusion Principle

To explain how species coexist, in 1934 G. F. Gause proposed the competitive
exclusion principle: species cannot coexist if they have the same niche. The word
"niche" refers to a species' requirements for survival and reproduction. These
requirements include both resources (like food) and proper habitat conditions (like
temperature, pH ). Gause reasoned that if two species had identical niches (required
identical resources and habitats) they would attempt to live in the exact same area and
would compete for the exact same resources. If this happened, the species that was the
best competitor would always exclude its competitors from that area. Therefore, species
must at least have slightly different niches in order to coexist.
Peter Grant and colleagues tested Gause's principle by studying seed-eating finches
(birds) that live on the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean. They found that different
finch species can coexist if they have traits that allow them to specialize on particular
resources. For example, two finch species,Geospiza fuliginosa and Geospiza
fortis, vary in a key trait: beak size. Beak size is a critical trait because it determines the
size of a seed that a finch can eat: Individuals with small beaks eat small seeds,
individuals with intermediate sized beaks can eat intermediate size seeds and
individuals with large beaks can eat large seeds. G. fuliginosa and G. fortis do compete
for intermediate sized seeds because each species has some individuals with
intermediate sized beaks. However, G. fuliginosa specializes upon smaller seeds
because it has more individuals with small beaks. Conversely, G. fortisspecializes upon
larger seeds because it has more individuals with large beaks. Thus, these species
niches differ slightly because a specific trait, beak size, allows them to specialize upon a
particular seed size.
Joe Connell also tested Gause's principle by studying barnacles (shelled marine
organisms) that live on rocks along European coastlines. In 1961, Connell found that
two barnacle species, Balanus and Chthamalus, can coexist because they differ in two
traits: growth rate and vulnerability to desiccation. Balanus 's growth is rapid, which
allows it to smother and crush the slower-growing Chthamalus. Balanus, however, dies
close to shore because it gets too dry during low tide. In contrast, Chthamalus tolerates
these dry conditions. Consequently, even though Balanus is a better competitor for
space, these barnacles coexist because Chthamalus can survive in areas
that Balanus cannot survive. These and many other examples support the competitive
exclusion principle: Species can only coexist if they have different niches.

Character Displacement
Competition can cause species to evolve differences in traits. This occurs because the
individuals of a species with traits similar to competing species always experience
strong interspecific competition. These individuals have less reproduction and survival
than individuals with traits that differ from their competitors. Consequently, they will not
contribute many offspring to future generations. For example, the finches
previously discussed can be found alone or together on the Galapagos Islands. Both
species' populations actually have more individuals with intermediate-sized beaks when
they live on islands without the other species present. However, when both species are
present on the same island, competition is intense between individuals that have
intermediate-sized beaks of both species because they all require intermediate sized
seeds. Consequently, individuals with small and large beaks have greater survival and
reproduction on these islands than individuals with intermediate-sized beaks.
A ground finch on Santa Cruz Island in the Galapagos. Different finch species can coexist if they have traits—
for instance, beak size—that allow them to specialize on particular resources.

Studies show that when G. fortis and G. fuliginosa are present on the same island, G.
fuliginosa tends to evolve a small beak and G. fortis tends to evolve a large beak. The
observation that competing species' traits are more different when they live in the same
area than when competing species live in different areas is called character
displacement. For the two finch species, beak size was displaced: Beaks became
smaller in one species and larger in the other species. Studies of character
displacement are important because they provide evidence that competition plays a
very important role in determining ecological and evolutionary patterns in nature.

Read more: http://www.biologyreference.com/Ce-Co/Competition.html#ixzz5Svq3OqBg

Cooperative phenomena in the animal kingdom are very frequent. For example, group hunting
enables lionesses to have greater success in capturing preys, especially, those of larger size. Group
life allows mothers to care for, feed and better protect their cubs increasing in such a way their
survival likeliness until the adulthood. Monkeys, on their turn, live in social groups and this brings to
them some important advantages like protection of food sources against competitors, although an
increase in the number of individuals in a group can influence the quantity and distribution of the
available food in a given environment. This is an important aspect in determining the ideal size of
primates’ groups. Other advantages are: avoid predation, generational learning, easy access to mates
or breeding partners, infant care, the development of social activities, specially, mutual grooming to
reinforce bonds between individuals within the group, etc. See, for instance, “The social role of
touch in humans and primates: Behavioural function and neurobiological
mechanisms” by R.I.M. Dunbar.
Ants like Honey bees are eusocial insects that belong to the order Hymenoptera, one of the largest
orders of insects. The name Hymenoptera literarily means ‘membrane wings’. Ants have spread
through almost the entire world (they can be found in all places on Earth except Antarctica and some
isolated islands) and compose about 15–20% of the animal biomass in most terrestrial environments
(Holldobler and Wilson, 1994). They have developed into a highly specialized model of society in
which the division of labor depends on the needs of the colony and on environmental and external
factors. Ants colonized the land millions of years ago and have evolved into a complex hierarchical
organization of castes. This type of social structure has allowed them to adapt to diverse
environments, even the most hostile. Through evolutionary pressures over time, acquired knowledge
and interactive teaching, ants have developed a high degree of self-organization, efficiency and
adaptability that even today continue to fascinate researchers worldwide. The colonies have different
sizes and are comprised of one or a few queens and a cast of female-sterile workers. Each member is
assigned a specific role within the colony and the individual actions are governed by simple
behavioral rules. The role of male ants is to mate with the queen. The queen is a reproducing adult
female and the founder of the entire colony. She is the only one that lays eggs and usually tends to
have a long half-life with respect to the workers. The worker ants are non-reproductive females and
are responsible for the tasks in the colony. So, we can find individuals specializing in cutting leaves,
defending the colony, taking care of larvae by feeding and washing them, fungus growth- as an
indispensable mechanism for getting essential nutrients from food- etc. These insects are able to
build amazing underground cities with lots of tunnels and chambers dedicated to different purposes:
nursery, food storage, garbage dumps, etc. They are also able to fertilize the surrounding soil by
means of the variety of nutrients produced around their nests and contribute to the dispersal of seeds;
reasons for which they are considered authentic underground factories that play a decisive role in the
balance of the ecosystem. They use a chemical language (pheromone markers), sounds, physical
touch (they touch one another in certain situations as a stimulus for activating an individual) and
diverse environmental cues to coordinate their actions.

On the other hand, it is well kown that cooperation and collective phenomena in animals result from
the interaction among individuals that try to maximize their own evolutionary fitness. From a
Complex System’s perspective, ant colonies like human societies represent a clear example of
complexity and self-organization. The emergent properties and behavioral patterns of the whole
system are the result of the interactions between individuals who make up it. The structure and
dynamics of these interactions allow the emergence of collective patterns of behavior that could not
be identified and properly analyzed if the system’s elements were analyzed individually. Therefore,
we advocate for the study of these kinds of systems from a holistic perspective, that contrary to the
reductionist way-of-thinking (the approach that has dominated scientific thinking during centuries),
is based on the fact that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. As a result, many social and
cooperative behaviors observed in ant colonies and other complex societies in nature can be
examined from a different perspective through the study of the relationship between the structure and
dynamics of their individual constituents.