Unit1:Interdependence between

organisms with their

environment
 1.1. A balanced ecosystem
1. Living organisms are interdependent with one another for survival.
2. Examples of interdependence among living organisms:
i. Plants are the main sources of food for animals and humans.
ii. Animals, such as birds depend on plants for shelter.
iii. Plants need animals such as insects for pollination.
3. Examples of interdependence between living things and non-living things:
i. Plants need sunlight and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
ii. Humans and animals need oxygen in the air for respiration.
4. Living things and non-living things interact with one another to create a balanced ecosystem.
5. A balanced ecosystem means a balanced environment that does not change very much over a period of time.
 Interaction between Living Organisms
Interspecific relationships and intraspecific relationship
• The competition may be between the members of different species(interspecific interactions).
• The competition that occurs between members of the same species(Intraspecific relationship)
• One way is according to the effects that individuals of interacting species have on each other.
+= positive effect
0 = no detectable effect
=negative effect
++ interations are beneficial to individual of both species.
+- interations benefit individuals of one species but are harmful to those of the other species
--interations are harmful to individual of both species.
+0 interactions benefit individuals of one species and have no significant effect on individuals of the other
species.
Difference between Intraspecific and Interspecific Competition
Intraspecific competition Interspecific competition

1 It is a competition among the individuals of the same 1 The competition is among the members of different
species species

2 The competition is for all the requirements. 2 The competition is for one or a few requirements.

3 The competing individuals have similar type of 3 The competing individuals have different types of
adaptation adaptations.

4 It is more severe due to similar needs and 4 It is less severe as the similar needs are a few and
adaptations. the adaptations are different

5 Example includes finding mating partners 5 Examples include competition for food
Cont’d
 Symbiotic relationship
• Symbiosis literally means the living together of two dissimilar
organisms, where one or the other, or both are affected.
• Symbiosis can also be defined as a close relationship between
species that benefits at least one of the species.
• The three types of symbiotic associations are:
mutualism,
parasitism and
commensalism.
 Mutualism (++)
• This is an association where two living organisms of different species benefits from each other
without causing harm to each other

•Examples of mutualism.
Rhizobium bacteria in root nodules of legumes: The bacteria obtain carbohydrates, proteins
and shelter from the legumes while the plant obtain nitrates from nitrogen fixed by bacteria.
The association between green algae and fungus: The fungus obtains oxygen and
carbohydrates from algae while algae obtains water, carbon dioxide and mineral salts from
fungus and protection from drying out.
Hermit crab and sea anemone: The sea anemone obtains food from the crab while the crab
gets protection from the anemone stinging cells.
a. Facultative Mutualism
• In this relationship both organisms benefit by living in close association, but
it is not essential.
•Examples:

Many ants are found in the vicinity of aphids. The ants feed on the
sugary fluid released by the aphids, and the aphids are protected by the
ants.
Small fish of several families, including a wrasse, feed on small
organisms and parasites on the bodies of larger fish. These cleaner or
barber fish in this manner, and the larger fish are relieved of
unwelcome guests on their bodies.
 b. Obligate mutualism
• As the name implies, an obligatory contact exists between different organisms
•Examples:

 Lichens are plants made up of a fungus and an alga living in close association. They are usually found
on rocks and tree trunks. The fungus is attached to the substratum by fungal treads. These fungal treads
help to absorb inorganic substances which are then used by the alga during photosynthesis (when
organic compounds are made). The fungus obtains organic substances manufactured by the alga.
 Bees and birds visit flowers in search of pollen and nectar. In the process flowers are pollinated.
 Commensalism (+0)
• Commensalism means literally 'at table together'. This is a symbiotic relationship
between two species in which one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor
harmed.
•Examples:
The remora fish (the commensal) feeds on food scattered by the shark (the host)
Cowbirds and cattle egrets feed on insects flushed out of the grass by grazing bison,
cattle, horses, and other herbivores. Because the birds increase their feeding rates when
following the herbivores, they clearly benefit from the association.
The barnacles benefit by attaching themselves to the turtle’s shell for a home and
transportation. The turtle is not benefiting or being harmed in this relationship.
 Parasitism ( + )
• This is an association between two organisms of different species where one, the parasite
benefits from the other, the host and harms it i. e. parasite gets benefits from the host.
• A parasite: Is a living organism which lives in or on another organism from which it obtains
nutrients, shelter and gives nothing in return except harm.
• A host: Is a living organism in or on which a parasite lives and suffers harm in return.

•Main features of parasitism

• The parasite and the host are from different species and in many animals, the parasite is usually
invertebrate or a simple plant e.g. fungus or bacteria.
• The parasite is usually smaller than the host.
• Host suffers harm as result of the presence of the parasite.
• The parasite gains nourishment mainly but it could also gain from shelter or protection by the host .
 Types of parasites
Ectoparasites: These are parasites that live outside the body of the host.
E.g. Ticks
Endoparasites: These are parasites that live inside the body of the host.
E.g. Tape worm, liver flukes.
Obligate parasites: These are parasites that live absolutely parasitic life.
E.g. tape worms and liver flukes.
Facultative parasites: These may live as parasites some time and non-
parasite. E.g. fleas
 General adaptations of parasites to live on its host.
• Scolex has hooks and suckers for attachment to the gut wall to a void dislodgment by food contents and
peristaltic gut movements. E.g. Tape worm.
• They lay many eggs to increase their chances of survival in case of severe problems.
• They have short life cycle hence reproduce more offspring rapidly.
• They have a variety of the hosts.
• Loss of unwanted body organs e.g. digestive system since they are surrounded by already digested
food.
• They have flat bodies to increase the surface area for exchange of substances. E.g. Tape worm.
• Some have he ability to live under low oxygen concentration by carrying out anaerobic respiration.
E.g. Some bacteria in the stomach of ruminants.
 CONT’D
• In unfavorable conditions, the eggs may remain dormant in a cyst waiting for
favourable conditions.
• They have thick cuticle to provide protection against host enzyme action.
• Most parasites live in the small intestines where there is plenty of already digested food.
• Their eggs are only protected by hard outer cover which is resistant to digestion of
enzyme of the host.
• Most parasites are hermaphrodites; hence they do not depend on another pattern for
fertilization. to occur.
• Use of secondary host (pigs) in the life cycle to provide means of entry into the primary
host (man).
The three types of symbiotic relationship
Organism 1 Organism 2 Examples

Mutualism Benefits Benefits Insects and flowers, lichens

Commensalism Benefits Neither The remora fish (the commensal) feeds on

benefits nor is food scattered by the shark (the host)
harmed

Parasitism Benefits Is harmed Mosquito sucking blood of a human

Significance of Parasitism

• Parasitism alters the behaviour and morphology of their hosts.

• Parasitism promotes coexistence in biodiversity.
• Parasitism affects the keystone species and modifies the structure
of the ecosystem.
• Parasitism leaves parasite with no responsibility. Some birds,
deposit their eggs in the nest of another species. The host
(another species) then ‘babysits’ the egg in place of the parasite
(bird), instead of spending time hatching their own young.
Cont’d
 Parasitism and disease
• Parasites and their hosts have a close relationship, so their
populations also oscillate
• This is demonstrated by winter moth caterpillars (the host
species) and wasp larvae (parasites on the caterpillars).
• If the population of parasites increases, they feed on their
hosts and their population decreases.
• Therefore, decrease in number of hosts for the parasites also
reduces the population size of parasites. This allows the host
population to recover, so the parasite population also recovers
Cont’d
. PREDATION (+- )
 This is a situation where an animal captures, kills, and feeds on another
of different species.
 The species which captures, kills and feeds on another is called a
predator.
 The animal which is fed on is called a prey.
 When the number of predators goes high, the number of prey decreases
progressively. Therefore, the higher the predators, the lower the prey
Adaptations of predators for predation
• They have sharp pointed and strong teeth for removing flesh meat from the
bones
• They have faster speed to be able to capture the prey.
• They produce poisonous fluids which help them to paralyze the prey.
• They have claws which are sharp and curved for capturing and holding the
prey.
• They have highly developed sense of smell to allocate the prey.
• They have carnassial teeth which are sharp and curved for grasping and
tearing the flesh meat into small pieces.
• They have cute vision to locate the prey. E.g. Eagles
 Cont’d
• They have colour camouflage (ability to change colours in order not to be detected by
the prey.
• They hunt in groups to enable them kill large and powerful preys.
• They have developed great skills of mimicry – easily resemble the prey and so as they
can be as close to the prey as possible
Adaptations of prey to escape predators /Anti-predator
adaptations

• They have faster speed that enable them to escape from predators.
• They have protective structures e.g. spikes, horns and scales.
• They produce numerous young ones to ensure survival of their species.
• They stay in groups to confuse the predators – appear as a large, big prey.
• They have well developed sense of smell which help them detect and escape predators.
• They have colour camouflage.
• They have mimicry.
• They have large physical size that scares away predators
 Cont’d
• There are two types of mimicry:
 in Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one.
 In Mullerian mimicry: Two unpalatable (harmful) species mimic each other.
Cont’d
Prey-predator relationship
 Generally, the population of predator and prey fluctuates.
 The peaks of the prey come fast before those of predators.
 As the population of the prey increases, that of predators also increases to a
peak due to abundance of food.
 Increase of predator population prevents further increase of the prey since
many of the prey are being eaten.
 The predator population then drops as food becomes less.
 At any time, the number of predators is lower than that of prey .
Graph showing the fluctuations of predator- prey
relationship
 Significance of predation
• Predation Prevents a Single Species from Becoming Dominant: predators
may feed on the dominating prey species and prevent it from becoming
dominant.
• Predation can Either Increase or Decrease Species Richness:
In an ecological community where predator and prey exist together, predator
has the ability to either increase or decrease the number of prey species.
• Predation as Source of Natural Selection: Natural selection favours the
fittest individuals in a community.
 Competition (--)
• Competition occurs when more than one individual or population
tries to use the same limited resource. If a lot of organisms
compete for the same resources, it is difficult for each individual
to obtain the resources they need.
• However, in the same habitat, two different species cannot
occupy the same niche in the same place for very long time. This
is known as the competitive exclusion principle.
• If two species were to occupy the same niche, they would
compete with one another for the same food and other
environmental resources and eventually result in the exclusion of
one organism.
 Allelopaphy (+ - )

• Allelopaphy is an + - interaction, caused by one organism

releasing a chemical substance into the environment that has a
negative effect on another organism.
• For example, sunflower plants release chemicals from their roots
and fallen leaves into the soil.
• The chemicals inhibit seed germination in some other plant
species, but do not affect the germination of sunflower seeds, so
giving the sunflower a competitive advantage .
 Saprotrophs

• After scavengers and detritivores feed on dead organic matter, some

unused energy and organic compounds still remain.
• For example, scavengers cannot consume bones, feathers, and fur of
dead animals and detritivores cannot consume wood and other
indigestible plant material.
• Organisms called saprotrophs complete the breakdown of any
remaining organic matter.
• The main saprotrophs that decompose dead animal matter are bacteria.
• The main saprotrophs that decompose dead plant matter are fungi.
• Saprotrophs convert dead organic material into carbon dioxide and
compounds containing nitrogen or other elements needed by living
organisms.
 Conserving and preserving living organisms
• Conservation is the protection of living organisms so that they are not facing extinction.
• Preservation are steps to keep living organism and nature in their original condition or natural
state.
•Steps in the conservation and preservation of living organisms:
Establish forest reserves and botanical gardens to protect wildlife and plants from illegal
hunting and logging.
Carry out selective logging to make sure only mature trees are cut.
Replanting trees to prevent the forest from disappearing.
Establish wildlife sanctuaries for animals that are facing extinction.
Enforce the protection of wildlife act to illegalize hunting of endangered wildlife species.
Enforce legislation to ban illegal trading of endangered wildlife.
Importance of organism interaction in ecosystem (nature)
1. It maintains the food webs:
A food web shows the food relationship among living organisms and most food webs start with green plants. If
biological interaction doesn’t exist, many animals would die from starvation as the food web wouldn’t exist

2. It controls the population of living organisms:

A predator is a living organism that hunts other living organisms for food and a prey is a living organism that is
hunted by predators.
3. It allows the living organisms to protect each other:
This can be shown by mutualism which is an interaction between two different species of living organisms in which
both parties benefit. A fungus and an alga live closely together to form a lichen, together the fungus and the alga
are able to survive in harsh environments
4. It provides the Earth with natural resources:
For example, the process of photosynthesis by green plants releases oxygen which is inhaled by animals and
humans. Another example would be when an animal defecates, its faeces would be used by plants as fertilizers
 Exercises
1. Distinguish between a community and a population

2. Distinguish between abiotic factors and biotic factors.

3. Define competition in terms of its effects on populations involved.

4. Parasitism and predation are both +- interactions. How do they differ?

5. Why is not possible for two different species to have identical ecological niches?

6.In mycorrhizal relationship, what are the benefits to:

a. the plant

b. The fungus?

7. a) Explain how a particular colour of fur may be advantageous to predator or prey

species.

b) what factors may cause a struggle to survive amongst members of a population?

 Cont’d
8. a. Distinguish between intraspecific and interspecific competitions
b. State the conditions under which similar organisms can co-exist
without causing extinction of one of them.