Esb Kamonyi Biology Notes s3 2021-2022

Ecole Sainte Bernadette Kamonyi
BIOLOGY & HEALTH SCIENCES

NOTES S3 Academic Year: 2021-2022
Student’s name……………………………………………………
TEACHER: VALENS NSENGIMANA

Table of contents
Topic Area 1: ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION
Unit 1: Interdependence among organisms in an ecosystem
Unit 2 : Population size
Unit 3 : Nutrient cycles
Unit 4: Effects of human activities on ecosystems 1
Unit 5: Effects of human activities on ecosystems 2: conservation and sustainability
Topic Area 2: ORGANISATION AND MAINTENANCE OF LIFE
Unit 6: Mitosis and meiosis
Unit 7: Heterotrophic nutrition
Unit 8: Circulatory system in humans
Unit 9: Cellular respiration
Unit 10: Skin and homeostatic mechanisms
Unit 11: Response and co-ordination in plants
Unit 12: Response and coordination in animal
Topic Area 3: REPRODUCTION
Unit 13: Asexual and sexual reproduction
Unit 14: Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
Unit 15: Reproduction in humans
Topic Area 4: HEALTH AND DISEASE
Unit 16: Social factors that affect good health
Unit 17: Decision-making regarding sexual relationships
Unit 18: HIV and AIDS, stigma, treatment, care and support
Unit 19: Sexual behaviour and sexual response
Topic Area 5: GENETICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Unit 20: Genetics
Unit 21: Gene therapy
Topic Area 6: SELECTION AND EVOLUTION
Unit 22: Variation and adaptive features
Unit 23: Natural and artificial selection
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Notes of Biology and Health sciences, S3 OL ESB Kamonyi
TOPIC AREA I:
ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION
UNIT 1: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG ORGANISMS IN AN ECOSYSTEM
Key unit competence: After studying this unit, I should be able to classify examples of species
interactions.
1.1 Introduction
Organisms depend on each other. For example, they depend on each other for food, shelter or even
mates. This is called interdependence.
There are two types of dependencies:
• One in which organisms belonging to the same species depend on each other. This is known as
intraspecific interaction.
• The other in which dependence is between organisms of different species. This is known as
interspecific interaction.
1.2 Intraspecific relationships

This type of relationship involves interaction between organisms of the same species.
In lions, for example, the females are the hunters while the males are required for protecting the
family.
In bee colonies, we have the worker bees and those in charge of protecting the queen bee, they are
known as soldier bees.
Intraspecific relationships are of two types: competition and cooperation interactions.
Competition is a relationship that occurs between two organisms either of the same species or
different species that require or use the same resources.
They depend on the same resources found in the ecosystem, for example, food, space, water and
shelter.
When this happens between organisms in the same species, it is intraspecific competition.
E.g.Normally, male animals of the same species compete for the female animals.
If it happens between organisms of different species, it is interspecific competition.
E.g. Cheetah and lion compete for flesh.
Note:Competition is an instinct in all organisms for their survival. Organisms tend to compete for
resources when the supply is not enough.
1.3 Interspecific relationships

There are many types of interactions between different species of organisms. Examples include:
parasitism, predation grazing, competition, mutualism neutralism, commensalism, amensalism and
allopathy.
a) Parasitism:
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism (the parasite) benefits while the other (the host)
is harmed. This is a positive, negative relationship. The parasite usually lives on or inside the other
organism.
E.g. Head lice are an example of parasitism because they feed on blood from the human head.
b) Predation:
This is where one organism captures, kills and eats the other organism. The organism hunting is
called the predator, while the organism being hunted is called the prey.
For example, a snake eating a mouse: the snake is considered the predator because it is consuming the
mouse. Similarly, various birds eat earthworms.
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Importance of predation: "In ecology, predation is a mechanism of population control. Thus,
when the number of predators is scarce, the number of prey should rise. When this happens, the
predators would be able to reproduce more and possibly change their hunting habits. As the
number of predators rise, the number of prey decline. This results in food scarcity for predators
that can eventually lead to the death of many predators.
Predators have many feeding adaptations:
 They have acute senses that locate and identify a prey.
 Many have structures such as claws, teeth, fangs and stings that they use to catch and
subdue or poison the prey
 Predators that pursue their prey are fast and agile.
 Some predators such as frogs and chameleon have long tongues to help them catch insects.
 Predators such as eagles have sharp eyes facing forward thereby giving them greater sense of
sight which aids in locating their prey.
Fig 1.1 predation
c) Mutualism:Interaction between two species that benefits both; typically, it involves the
exchanges of substances or services. Examples lichens (fungi- algae)
This is where both organisms participate and benefit from each other.
An example of this would be the bee and flower. Bee gets nectar and honey from flower.
The bee contributes back to the flower by spreading the pollen so that the flowers can
reproduce. This is a very common contribute to both the flower and the bee, they both rely
on each other to survive.
Fig 1.2 Mutualism (insect &flower), Lichens (algae & Fungi)

d) Commensalism: A sharing of the same environment by two organisms where one species
benefits the other is unaffected.
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fig 1.3 neutralism (bird & herbivore)
e) Neutralism:relationship between two species that interact but do not affect each other.
f) Amensalism: A relationship between organisms of different species in which one organisms is
inhibited or destroyed while other organisms remain unaffected
Example: big trees block sunlight and prevent other plants beneath from growing.
g) Allelopathy: relation by which an organism produces one or more biochemical that influence
germination, growth, survival, and reproduction of other organisms.
For instance, eucalyptus use allelopathy to protect their space by using their roots to pull more
water from the soil so that other plants cannot thrive.
h) Grazing: methods of feeding in which herbivores feeds on plants such as grasses.
Note: Animals grazing is not seen as predation because plants are not killed by the grazers. It is
also not parasitism because a parasite is always with the host either inside or outside. Grazers
are not always with the plants they feed on.
Exercises
1. What is interdependence?
2.Differentiate between intraspecific and interspecific relationships using examples.
3. What kind of relationship is portrayed in the following interactions?
(a) Worms in human intestines
(b) A cat catching a mouse
(c) Lions fighting over buffalo carcass
(d) Cows grazing in a field
(e) Insect in a flower
4. What is the main disadvantage of allelopathy in plants?
5. How are predators and their preys adapted to their environments?
6. In your opinion is parasitism beneficial? Why?
UNIT 2: POPULATION SIZE

Key unit competence: After studying this unit, I should be able to analyse and interpret population
curves.
2.1Introduction
Organisms do not generally live alone.
A population refers to a group of organisms of a species that interbreed and live in the same place at a
same time. They are capable of interbreeding or reproduction.
Population size: is the actual number of individuals in a population.
2.2 Environmental factors that limit population size Population
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Population growth is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases in a given
time period, expressed as a fraction of the initial population.
For a population to be healthy, factors such as food, water and space, must be available.
The rate of population growth can be slowed down by environmental factors such as low food supply,
predation and disease.
These factors can lower birth rates, increase death rates or lead to emigration. The rate of growth of a
population depends on:
a) Food supply
Abundant food will enable organisms to breed more successfully and produce more offspring.
Shortage of food on the other hand can result in starvation and less energy for survival or force
emigration hence reduction of population.
b) Predation
Heavy predation of a population may reduce its size.
This can happen if the breeding rate is not sufficient enough to replace the organisms eaten.
As the number of predators increase, they feed on the prey whose number reduces. Hence little food
for the predators
Fewer predators have abundant food which favours reproduction and growth of younger ones
c) Disease
This is a serious problem in large populations, because diseases can spread easily from one individual
to another.
Epidemics can reduce population sizes rapidly. Take an example of cholera, which is highly
contagious, it spreads very quickly in refugee camps due to high density of people.
2.3 Population Density
The number of individuals per unit area) is termed the population density.
At low population densities, individuals are spaced well apart. Examples: territorial, solitary
mammalian species such as tigers
Fig 2.1 low population density

At high population densities, individuals are crowded together. Examples: colonial animals, such as
rabbits, corals, and termites.
Fig 2.1 population density
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2.3 Population growth curve
All populations increase over time. Population growth is the increase of individuals in a certain area
over a unit time. The growth of population can be measured or estimated by determining population
density.
Population density of any species is controlled by:
 Birth rate (natality rate) - the number of live births per thousands of population per year.
 Death rate (mortality rate) - the ratio of deaths to the population of a particular area during a
particular period of time, usually calculated as the number of deaths per one thousand people
per year.
 Immigration - the movement of individuals into a specific area.
 Emigration - the movement of individuals out of a specific area.
This can be expressed as a formula
Population growth =Births – Deaths + Immigration – Emigration
Population growth is influenced by the Biotic and abiotic factors.
Biotic factors are living factors that affect population growth. Or put in another way, factors that
are produced by living things. like: food, predators, competition, preys, parasites
Abiotic factors that affect a population growth are non-living factors. Abiotic Factors affecting
Population growth are: rainfall, humidity, temperature, soil, pH, space, light intensity, etc….
Population growth curve
Population growth is never linear.
Under favourable environmental conditions, population of a given species will increase in number
from generation to generation. Growth is said to be exponential.
The J-shaped curve in figure (2.3) represents a typical form of an exponential growth curve.
Fig 2.3 Exponential growth curve

The exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely in a resource-limited environment. This happens
when the environment has reached its carrying capacity.
As population density approaches the carrying capacity, competition becomes more intense, mortality
increases, the birth rate drops and any of the following can happen.
The population may stabilise below the carrying capacity. This pattern is known as a logistic or
sigmoid (S-shape) growth curve as shown in fig 2.4 The population may briefly go beyond the
carrying capacity and then drop.
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Fig 2.4: logistic or sigmoid (S-shape) growth curve
(K: Carrying capacity is the number of organisms that can be supported in an environment)
A population growth has 4 phases:

Lag phase – slow growth – Population size is very small, only produces a very small increase in
numbers
Exponential phase (log phase) – Fast growth – Population growth at maximum as limiting factors
(eg. food availability, potential mates) are all abundant)
Stationary phase – no growth – population remains fairly constant with small fluctuations due to
variations in limiting factors. It is at the carrying capacity
Death phase: As food runs out, space becomes limited and sex mates are less, more organisms die.
Therefore, the number of organisms in the population reduces.
fig 2.5: population growth’s phases

2.4 Human population growth and its effects
The rapid growth of the world population over the past one hundred years results from the difference
between the rate of birth and rate of death.
The growth in human population in the world affects all people through the impact on the economy
and environment.
In the past, infant and Childs deaths and short life spans used to limit population.
Currently, due to the improved nutrition, sanitation and medical care, more babies survive their first
few years of life.
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Over-population is defined as the condition of having more people than can live on the Earth in
comfort.
The population of the world was about:
In 1810 around one billion
In 1930 around 2 billion
In 1975 around 4 billion
In 1980 around 4.4 billion
In 2018 around 7.7 billion people
(source: wikipedia.org)
Table: Rwanda population

Year Population Yearly % Change Density (P/Km²)
2018 12,501,156 2.40% 507

2017 12,208,407 2.44% 495
2016 11,917,508 2.48% 483
2015 11,629,553 2.56% 471
(source: World bank)
The population of Rwanda represents 0.16 percent of the world's total population which arguably
means that one person in every 637 people on the planet is a resident of Rwanda. The total population
in Rwanda was estimated at 12.5 million people in 2018. Looking back, in the year 1960, Rwanda had
a population of 2.9 million people.
2.4.1Causes of rapid human population growth
1.Food production and distribution: Agricultural practices have improved in many countries due to
advancement in technology. These enabled farmers to increase food production.
2.Improvement in public health: scientists have invented ways of preventing and curing many types
of diseases. Thus, millions of people who would have died of disease are more likely to live to old age.
3.Gains in education and standards of living: through education many people are able to appreciate
the importance of having a better standard of living that improves the quality of life.
2.4.2Consequences of rapid population growth
1. Scarcity of food Increased population means more people to feed, leading to food scarcity.
 This affects a country’s economy.
 Inadequate supply of food leads to undernourishment of the people which lowers their
productivity.
 This further reduces the production capacity of the workers.
 Deficiency of food also leads to food importation, which also places unnecessarily strain on
foreign exchange.
2. Poverty:rapid growth of population is largely responsible for poverty.
 Many people spend a major part of their income on bringing up their children.
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 Therefore, no improvement in agricultural and industrial technology, shortage of essential
commodities, low standard of living and mass unemployment.
3. Environmental effects: rapid population growth leads to extreme changes in the environment.
 It pushes people to practise farming in areas such as, riverbanks, natural reserves and tropical
forests. Clearing of forests areas leads to imbalance of nature, which if not corrected destroys
the environment.
 Changes in the environment leads to climate change that affects organisms through global
warming.
 The increasing population growth leads to the migration of a large number of people to urban
areas with industrialisation. This results in polluted air, water, noise and soil in big cities and
towns.
2.4.3Advocating for family planning programmes
The problem of uncontrolled population growth is worldwide. It’s morepronounced in developing
countries. The most effective method of controlling population growth is family planning.
Family planning is the practice of controlling the number of children in a family and the intervals
between their births.
Family planning allows people to attain their desired number of children and determine the spacing of
pregnancies. It is achieved through the use of contraceptive methods.
Family planning activities have clear economic benefits and can help countries to have fewer
dependents. Many social problems can be solved using family planning.
The government of Rwanda took conscious of this and came up with a national family planning policy
in 2012. The aim of the policy is to tackle poverty by controlling population levels.
UNIT 3: NUTRIENT CYCLE

Key unit competence: After studying this unit, I should be able to explain the water, carbon and
nitrogen cycles.
3.1 Introduction
Plants and animals need nutrients in order to survive.
The nutrients are largely obtained from the environment where the plant or animal is located.
How do plants and animals get these nutrients and compounds from the environment?
How are these nutrients taken back to the environment?
The flow or circulation of nutrients in the environment and through organisms is what forms nutrient
cycles.
In this unit you will learn about nitrogen, carbon, water and phosphorous cycles.
3.2 Water cycle
The water cycle is also known as the hydrological cycle.
It describes the continuous movement of water from the atmosphere as rain to the surface of the earth,
to bodies of living organisms, to water bodies and then release of water vapour back to the atmosphere.
This continuous circulation of water ensures that the mass of water on earth remains fairly constant
over time.
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The cycle involves the following processes: evaporation, condensation, precipitation and
infiltration.
a) Evaporation
Liquid water from bodies of living organisms (transpiration from plants, sweating and wastes from
animals), the earth’s surface and water bodies heats up and vaporizes.
(b) Condensation
In the atmosphere, the water vapour undergoes condensation (the conversion of a vapour or gas to a
liquid) to form clouds.
(c) Precipitation
Condensed water is released back to the earth in form of rainfall. This is called precipitation.
Rainfall therefore returns the greatest part of water back to the earth.
(d) Infiltration
After rain falls, water goes to the ground.
The underground water comes out to form rivers, springs and wells.
Excess water that cannot infiltrate into the soil flows on the ground due to gravity.
This water forms surface runoff. It flows into rivers that direct it to large water bodies such as lakes
and seas.
Some of the water is taken by living organisms for use in their bodies.
Some organisms have water as their habitat.
The flow of water over the whole environment forms a continuous cycle.
fig 3.1: water cycle

3.3 Carbon cycle
The carbon cycle explains the flow of carbon through the atmosphere in oceans, in soils and in
communities of living organisms.
Carbon is found in form of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains 0.03% carbon
dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is also found dissolved in water.
Chains of carbon atoms make up the body of all living organisms. (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids)
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Carbon enters the food chain through the process of photosynthesis.
Movement of food substances from one consumer to another results in transfer of carbon.
Some carbon dioxide is dissolved in rainwater forming a weak carbonic acid.
Carbon is released back into the atmosphere in the following methods.
(a) Respiration
All living organisms carry out the process of respiration. .During respiration, carbon dioxide is
produced as a by-product. It is released back to the atmosphere.
(b) Decomposition
All living organisms are made of carbon containing substances.
When they die and decompose, carbon dioxide is released back to the atmosphere.
(c) Combustion
Human activities are known to release a lot of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
These activities include:
 Use of fuels in homes for cooking.
 Fire is used to burn fields, vegetation and wastes.
 Heating and burning fossil fuels especially in industries and fuels in engines of vehicles.
Fig 3.2: carbon cycle

3.4 Nitrogen cycle
All living things need nitrogen-containing compounds which include proteins and nucleic acids.
Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas (N2.)
Even though nitrogen gas is abundant in the atmosphere, organisms rarely absorb it in its gaseous state.
A lot of energy is required to break the bonds in nitrogen gas.
Only a few bacteria are capable of splitting the nitrogen molecule.
Once broken down, the nitrogen atom can then combine with other compounds so that plants are able
to take it up.
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There are five main processes in the nitrogen cycle. These are:
(i) Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen fixing bacteria found in the root nodules of plants in the soil convert nitrogen into nitrates.
(ii) Assimilation
Plants absorb nitrates from the soil and use them to form amino acids, which build up into proteins and
other compounds.
When eaten by animals, they are first broken down into amino acids, and then assimilated to form
animal proteins
In animals, the proteins are used in the formation of new tissues, repair of worn out tissues, making of
enzymes and hormones, among others.
(iii) Ammonification
When the process of excretion occurs in animals, excess proteins eventually form ammonia and urea.
(iv) Nitrification
When plants and animals die, they undergo a process known as putrefaction. This is simply referred to
as decay or decomposition.
Decomposers such as nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites, while other bacteria convert
nitrites into nitrates
This process of converting ammonium compounds to nitrates is called nitrification.
(v) Denitrification
Some soil bacteria, called denitrifying bacteria found in poorly aerated soils and swamps, convert
nitrates, ammonia and ammonium salts to nitrogen gas.
Fig 3.3: Nitrogen cycle

3.5 Phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the form of phosphate (PO43-) ions and
hydrogen phosphate (HPO42-) ions. Phosphorus forms part of:
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 DNA and genes in general.
 Molecules that store energy such as ATP.
 Fats.
 Building blocks of certain parts of the human and animal body such as the bones and teeth.
Phosphorus cannot be found in air in the gaseous state. This is because phosphorus is usually liquid at
normal temperatures and pressures.
It exists mainly in water, soil and sediments. (mineral or organic matter deposited by water, air, or
ice.)
The phosphorus cycle is the slowest of the nutrient cycles.
In the atmosphere phosphorus can mainly be found as very small dust particles.
Phosphorus is most commonly found in rock formations and ocean sediments as phosphate salts.
Phosphate salts that are released from rocks through weathering usually dissolve in soil water and will
be absorbed by plants.
The quantities of phosphorus in soil are generally small; it is often the limiting factor for plant growth.
That is why farmers often apply phosphate fertilizers on farmland.
Phosphates are also limiting factors for plant-growth in marine ecosystems, because they are not very
water-soluble.
Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating animals.
Phosphorus cycles through plants and animals are much faster than those in rocks and sediments.
When animals and plants die, phosphates will return to the soils or oceans again during decay.
After that, phosphorus will end up in sediments or rock formations, remaining there for millions of
years.
3.6 Supporting tree planting programmes at home and school
All nutrient cycles depend on plants to be complete especially the trees and human beings who depend
on plants for carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus for their own use.
 Trees use carbon dioxide in the atmosphere so that its percentage remains at 0.03%. When this
percentage is altered due to deforestation, climate change sets in with dire consequences.
 Plants are the only organisms that use atmospheric carbon dioxide in substantial amounts thus
stopping global warming.
 Trees play an important role in phosphorus and nitrogen cycles as well. Atmospheric nitrogen
is used by nitrogen–fixing bacteria to form nitrates which are absorbed by plants. The
percentage of nitrogen is maintained at a safe percentage, that is 79%.
 Animals get nitrates from plants. Without plants, nitrates cannot be used by animals directly.
 Phosphorus is present in small quantities in soil. The plants are the only organisms that can get
phosphorus from soil while animals get phosphorus from plants
It is important to plant trees in school compounds and homesteads so as to enhance nutrient cycles.
This is done by transplanting tree seedlings.
In Rwanda, planting of trees has helped people not only to have fuel such as firewood and charcoal
but also to control soil erosion.
UNIT 4: EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ECOSYSTEMS

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Key unit competence: After studying this unit, I should be able to assess the consequences of
uncontrolled human activities on ecosystems.
4.1 Introduction
Human beings affect the environment in many ways. Most of these ways lead to degradation of the
environment.
Destruction of the environment by human beings leads to:
• Reduced food supply
• Habitat destruction in general
• Pollution
• Climate change, greenhouse effect and global warming
4.2 Food supply
There are a number of agricultural practices in the world that result in increased food production.
Advancement in science and technology has created new and better methods of food production
and storage.
This has led to increased food production in the world to feed the ever growing population.
4.2.1. Modern technologies used in agriculture to increase food production include:
 Development and use of chemical fertilizers on farm land to boost levels of nutrients in the
soil
 Development and use of pesticides such as insecticides and fungicides to kill pests that feed
damage crops.
 Development and use of herbicides to kill weeds that compete with crops for nutrients, light,
water and space.
 Use of modern machinery, such as tractors and combine harvesters that has enabled land and
crops to be managed more efficiently.
 Selective breeding (artificial selection) to produce varieties of plants that are suited to
particular climates and soil types and breeds of animals for specific purpose such as
optimum meat, milk and wool production.
 Use of yeast and bacteria in the large-scale production of bread, beer, wine, yoghurt and
cheese.
4.2.2 Negative environmental impacts of monoculture
a) Susceptibility to pests: monoculture crops have no genetic variability because they are not allowed
to reproduce naturally. The pests and weeds that attack them adapt easily to the environment and
develop resistance to chemicals used to control them.
b) Eliminates biological controls: the lack of diversity in a monoculture system eliminates all the
functions that nature provides to plants and the soil.
The lack of diversity in a monoculture system eliminates all the functions that nature provides to plants
and the soil.
The soil lacks diverse nutrients from not having a variety of plants with different root depths.
There are fewer species of microorganisms such as bacteria, in the soil hence fewer nutrients available
for them to survive on.
c)Use of dangerous synthetic chemicals
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Farmers use synthetic chemicals in an attempt to prevent damage to crops by weeds, insects and
bacteria and to provide sufficient nutrients in the soil for the plants to grow.
These chemicals leave traces on plants that are intended for human consumption, but they can also
enter the food chain.
Most of the chemicals used are inorganic and cannot be processed into organic matter by
microorganisms.
The chemicals leach through the soil, eventually polluting groundwater
d)Soil degradation
 The negative impact the overuse of chemical fertilisers on the soil.
 Ground cover crops are eliminated, meaning there is no natural protection for the soil from
erosion by wind and rain.
4.2.3Intensive livestock production
Intensive livestock production is also known as Factory farming.
E.g.: Chickens and calves are often reared in large sheds instead of in open fields. Their urine and
faeces are washed out of the sheds with water forming Slurry.
If this Slurry gets into stream and rivers it supplies excess of nitrate and phosphate for the microscopic
algae, which can lead to eutrophication.
Overgrazing can result if too many animals are kept on pasture. They eat the grass down almost to the
roots, and their hooves trample the surface soil into a hard layer. As a result, the rainwater will not
penetrate the soil so it runs off the surface, carrying the soil with it.
4.2.4 The problems of world food supplies:
 There is not always enough food available in a country to feed the people living there.
 A severe food shortage can lead to famine.
 Food may have to be brought in (imported).
 The redistribution of food from first world countries to a poorer one can have a detrimental
effect on that country’s local economy by reducing the value of food grown by local farmers
 An increasing population.
 Pest damage or disease.
 Poor education of farmers and outmoded farming practices.
 The destruction of forests, so there is nothing to hunt and no food to collect.
 Poor soil, lack or inorganic ions of fertilizer.
 Desertification due to soil erosion as a result of deforestation.
 Lack of money to buy seeds, fertilizers, pesticides or machinery.
 War, which can make it too dangerous to farm, or which removes labour.
 Urbanization (building on farmland); the development of towns and cities makes less and less
land available for farmland.
4.3 Habitat destruction
A habitat is the natural place where plants, animals or other organisms live.
Habitat destruction is the change in the home of a species to a point it no longer exists.
Destruction of habitats leads to alterations of food webs and food chains found in an ecosystem.
This alteration can lead to species extinction due to lack of food or change in food preference hence
adaptation.
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4.3.1 Effects of altering food web and food chain
When one species in a food web is removed, it has an effect on all other species both up and down the
food web.
In general, the prey of that species will benefit, at least for a while, and the predators of that species
will be harmed, especially if an alternate food source can’t be found.
For example, if a grasshopper that eats wheat is removed from the food web, the wheat population will
probably go up, but the population of birds and mice that eat the grasshoppers will go down.
If a species of bird only eats that grasshopper, it may also die off completely.
4.3.2 Causes of habitat destruction
(a) Agriculture: is a major land use.Agricultural ecosystems provide important habitats for many wild
plant and animal species.
However, rising demand for food and other agricultural products has seen large-scale clearing of
natural habitats to make room for intensive monocultures.
b) Housing and road construction: the conversion of lands that once provided wildlife habitat are
being used in housing developments, roads and industrial sites. This destroys the habitat
Construction of roads through wildlife zones exposes organisms to habitat change.
(c) Extraction of natural resources
Resource extraction involves any activity that withdraws resources from nature.
Extraction produces raw material that are further processed to add value.
Examples of extractions are hunting, trapping, mining, oil and gas drilling and deforestation.
Organisms that live in areas where extractions occur have to move away, get destroyed or change their
way of life.
4.3.3 Undesirable effects of habitat destruction
a) Extinction
Trees serve as habitats for animals. If they are cut down, animals lose their homes and become more
vulnerable to predators. The species will die out because they don’t have a place to live. This may lead
to extinction of plant species as well as animals.
b) Soil erosion
Without trees, the land is uncovered therefore weather conditions such as wind and rain cause soil
erosion and flooding which results into soil infertility.
c) Rise in level of Carbon dioxide
Trees uses carbon in photosynthesis and without trees the carbon levels in the atmosphere will rise.
4.4 Pollution
Pollution is the addition of substances or energy forms to the environment in quantities that are
harmful to organisms and destructive to an ecosystem.
The substances that cause pollution are called pollutants.
They range from toxic chemicals, noise from factories and vehicles, untreated sewage from homes,
fertilizers from farms, etc….
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Pollutants are released into the environment as a result of human activities.
Pollution affects air, water and soil which are habitats of a variety of organisms.
4.4.1 Air pollution
Air pollution is the addition of waste substances into the air.
Air is polluted by smoke, dust and harmful gases, such as Sulphur dioxide (SO2) , Nitrogen Oxides
and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Fig 4.1: emissions of toxic gases by factories.

These pollutants mainly come from Burning wood, and from the emissions released by factories and
vehicles.
Production of Sulphur dioxide (SO2):
During the production of fertilizers, sulphuric acid is used and results in the release of Sulphur dioxide.
The burning of coal and oil containing Sulphur also releases Sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide results in the formation of acid rain (the sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater and
forms an acid) that damages vegetation growth, soil fertility and water body ecosystem
Sulphur dioxide is a health hazard because it leads to respiratory diseases like bronchitis. It also
affects the skin and eyes.
4.4.2 Water pollution
Water pollution is the addition of harmful substances into water.
These substances include toxic metals, pesticides and run off fertilizers.
The substances may kill organisms in water or make it less suitable for drinking or for use in
agriculture.
Other causes of water pollution are wastes and sewage from houses, industrial wastes, agricultural
practices and oil spills.
Causes and effects of water pollution
(a) Wastes and sewage from homes
The release of organic wastes such as human faeces into water bodies, for example, lakes and rivers
causes water pollution.
Decomposition of these wastes by micro-organisms uses up oxygen in water. As a result, fish and
other aquatic organisms die due to lack of oxygen.
Decomposition of wastes also releases nutrients into the water which cause rapid growth of algal,
referred to as algae blooms. This enrichment of the lake with nutrients and its effects is called
eutrophication.
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Untreated sewage also introduces micro-organisms which cause diseases such as typhoid, cholera and
dysentery to human beings.
(b) Industrial wastes
Industrial wastes contain toxic chemicals. These chemicals are harmful even in small amounts.
This is because they can accumulate in fish and other aquatic organisms and then be transferred along
the food chain.
(c) Agricultural practices

Pesticides and excess fertilizers applied to crops may enter into rivers and lakes through runoff after
rain.
Excess fertilisers in water containing nitrates cause eutrophication which in turn causes death of
aquatic organisms.
fig 4.2: water pollution

(d) Oil spills
Water gets polluted by oil that spills off from oil tankers in the sea as a result of accidents or poor
maintenance. Such oil is toxic to aquatic plants and animals and kills many types of bacteria.
Water birds die when they ingest the oil in trying to clean it off from the feathers.
Oil also reduces entry of oxygen into water and this leads to death of aquatic organisms.
Methods used to control water pollution
Treatment of sewage before releasing it into water systems.
Avoid excessive use of chemicals in agricultural practices.
Proper legislation to be put in place by governments to avoid irresponsible dumping of industrial
wastes into water bodies.
Avoiding spillage of oils into water bodies as much as possible. Petroleum companies should put
measures in place to avoid unnecessary accidents which usually result to such spillage.
4.4.3 Land pollution
Land pollution is the addition of harmful substances into the soil.
This is mainly caused by:
a) Over cultivation: this is the frequent use of land without a period of rest. It makes the land’s
top layer lose fertility. This reduces plant growth and yields.
b) Over grazing: it destroys the cover provided by grass, which lead to soil erosion.
c) Mining of minerals from the ground leads to soil degradation and destruction of vegetation
around the mining.
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d) Waste disposal: waste that is dumped on the soil affects its fertility. Materials that reduce the
soil value include plastics, plastic bags, metal scrap and chemical waste from industries. These
materials that do not rot .So the soil below plastic remain dry even during rainy season
Fig 4. 3: Land pollution

4.5 Measures taken by Rwandan government to protect the environment
In order to find solutions to the environmental problems and ensure the protection and sustainable
management of the environment, ten principles have been developed by the Rwanda government. The
principles are:
 Every individual has the right to live in a healthy and balanced environment and has the
obligation of safeguarding environmental health.
 Economic growth in Rwanda should be based on a more rational utilisation of resources and
take into account the environmental dimension
 Active and effective participation of the entire population in the protection and management of
the environment.
 Special attention should be paid to educational and awareness creation programmes in
environment at all levels with a greater involvement of women and the youth.
 Preventing environmental issues rather than curing them.
 Introduction of the principle of polluter-pays
 Environmental impact should be analysed during consideration of developmental projects;
 The principle of equality among generations and fair share in the utilisation of resources should
be respected;
 Establishment of a favourable social and economic environment for the utilisation of natural
resources
 Recognition of regional and global environmental interdependence and therefore working
closely with other international players in managing environmental issues
In addition, the Rwandan government has setup institutions such as Rwanda Environmental
Management Authority (REMA) which coordinates the implementation of Government policies or
environmental issues
REMA also advises the Government on legislations and other measures relating to environmental
management or to the implementation of relevant international conventions, treaties and agreements
UNIT 5: EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ECOSYSTEMS 2 /(CONSERVATION AND

SUSTAINABILITY)
Key unit competence: After studying this unit, I should be able to assess the outcomes of conservation
measures.
5.1 Introduction
Human beings need resources for social and economic development. The natural resources include
plants, animals, fossil fuel and minerals salts.
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In ecology the wordsustainabilitydescribes how biological systems remain diverse and productive
over time.
Sustainable resources on the other hand are those which are used or harvested in such a way that they
are not depleted or permanently damaged.
Sustainable development refers to the type of development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.
Conservation of natural resources is the use of nature for social and economic development without
wasting the resources and polluting the environment,
while preservation of natural resources is the protection of the environment in its natural form at all
costs.
Renewable resources: A renewable resource is one that may be replaced over time by natural
processes, such as fish populations or natural vegetation, or is inexhaustible, such as solar energy.
The goal of renewable resource conservation is to ensure that such resources are not consumed faster
than they are replaced.
Non-renewable resources:are those in limited supply that cannot be replaced or can be replaced only
over extremely long periods of time.
Non-renewable resources include fossil fuels and mineral deposits, such as iron ore and gold ore.
Conservation activities for non-renewable resources focus on maintaining an adequate supply of these
resources well into the future.
5.2 Reuse or recycling
Recycling is the conversion of waste material into other materials that can be used (reused).
Recyclable materials include: papers, glasses, plastics and metals. To recycle these materials, they are
sorted and washed with water to remove all dirt. Then they are reprocessed into new materials for
manufacturing other items.
Importance of recycling
 This method is very useful in conservation of resources as it reduces use of new raw material.
 The environment is also protected indirectly. Waste material which is usually dumped in the
environment can be recycled.
 Recycling of waste materials has created jobs for many people in Rwanda.E.g. Coped
(Company for Environment and Development) – is a recycling company which deals with
organic wastes. Hospitals, schools and residents are the major suppliers of organic wastes
 It has also reduced foreign exchange since fewer new products are imported.
5.3 Sewage treatment
Sewage treatment is the process of cleaning waste water from homes and industries by removing
organic wastes.
At the end the process, safe and clean water is obtained for domestic use while solid remains can be
used to make manure for use in the farms.
5.4 Methods of conservation of resources
 Keeping the water taps closed, when not in use.
 Using less water-consuming toilets.
 Watering the plants to be done in the evening tours.
 Treating water to be provided for irrigation purpose.
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 Avoiding wastage of energy.
 We should use the most efficient fuels available.
 Prevention of soil erosion by growing erosion checking crops like grasses, ground nuts etc.
5.5 Conservation of endangered species
An organism becomes an endangered species when it is likely to become extinct. A species is
endangered when its population falls below a critical level.
for example, the gorilla speciesis endangered and may become extinct.
Natural causes can also lead to extinction of organisms. Such causes include:
 Rapid changes in temperature and climate that affects organisms.
 Changes in sea level and water currents.
 Acid rain which increases the acidity of the soil which affects plant life. It can also disturb
rivers and lakes.
 Diseases and epidemics
 Invasive species that invade foreign territory. They use resources that the other species depend
on. Once competition gets too great, usually the less adapted one, will die off.
Human activities contribute to the extinction of organisms. This is through:
 Uncontrolled population increase.
 Destruction and fragmentation of habitats.
 Pollution of the environment.
 Climate change or global warming.
Conservation of endangered species

All countries in the world are required to conserve all endangered species.
We have moral and cultural reasons for conserving endangered species. Conservation seeks to:
 Maintain the future possibility that plant species might be identified for medicinal value.
 Keep damage to food chains and food webs to a minimum.
 Protect our future food supply.
Steps in the conservation and preservation of living organisms:
 Establish forest reserves and botanical gardens to protect wildlife and plants from illegal
hunting and logging (cutting trees)
 Carry out selective logging to make sure only mature trees are cut.
 Replanting trees to prevent the forest from disappearing.
 Establish wildlife sanctuaries for animals that are facing extinction.
 Enforce the protection of wildlife act to illegalize hunting of endangered wildlife species.
 Enforce legislation to ban illegal trading of endangered wildlife
 Providing education programmes to communities living around a conservation area about
the importance of conservation will assist in protecting such organisms.
 Seed banks: A seed bank is a store for seeds preserved for genetic diversity. They are also used
to store seeds in case of genetic diversity loss in endangered plant species in an effort to
conserve biodiversity. Seed banks offer a way to preserve historical and cultural value.
5.6 Benefits of conservation programmes
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Conservation programmes aim to preserve the natural environment, keeping it from harm or
damage for later use. Conservation also aims at maintaining quantity, management, protection and
wise use of natural resources to support life.
The benefits of conservation include:
 Reducing extinction of species
 Protecting vulnerable environments. (Nyungwe forest is an example of vulnerable
environment in Rwanda)
 Maintaining ecosystem functions.
5.7 Comparison of human effects on protected to unprotected areas

Table 5.1 Comparison of human effects on protected to unprotected areas
A protected area Unprotected area
 It is a geographical space, recognised, dedicated  It is a geographical space
and managed through legal or other effective which lacks restriction and
means to achieve conservation of nature. can be accessed by anyone
 The areas which are protected by the Rwandan without seeking legal
government are mainly three, namely: The permission.
Akagera National Park, Nyungwe National  Humans also affect the
Park and Volcanoes National Park unprotected area majorly by
 In addition, the forest reserves are polluting air, soil and water.
the GishwatiForest,MukuraForest, BusagaForest
andBuhanga forest and gallery forest in the
eastern province.
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TOPIC AREA II:
ORGANISATION AND MAINTENANCE OF LIFE
UNIT 6: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Key Unit Competence: To be able to explain the different processes of cell division and their
implications for living organisms.
6.1 Introduction
A cell is the structural and functional basic unit of living organisms, i.e. a is the basic unit of life.Cells
can only be observed under microscope
Characteristics of All Cells
 A surrounding membrane
 Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
 Organelles – structures for cell function
 Control center with DNA
Cell Types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
a) Prokaryotic:
 First cell type on earth and cell type of Bacteria
 Absence of a nuclear membrane
 Include Monera
Fig 6.1: A bacterium

b) Eukaryotic:
 Presence of a nuclear membrane
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 Include fungi, protists, plant, and animal cells
 Possess many organelles
6.2 Structure of the cell
A cell has size and shape. However, its size and shape vary greatly depending on where it is found and
the function it performs.
A typical cell has three main parts that are responsible for its structure and function namely: Nucleus,
cytoplasm and cell membrane.
A plant cell, however, has an additional outer layer, called cell wall.
Cell organelles: An organelle is a tiny structure within cytoplasm inside the cell which carries out of
function or process vital for the cell to live.
Cell organelles Functions

Mitochondrion It is the site for respiration
Chloroplast These contain green pigment called chlorophyll
which gives a plant its green colour.
They are also the site for photosynthesis
Centrioles To assemble the spindle during cell division
To organize microtubules in cilia and flagella
Lysosomes Contain digestive enzyme
Carry out digestion of food taken into the cell
Carry out destruction of bacteria and other
microbes that have entered the cell
Help in penetration of ova by sperms during
fertilization in mammals
Microtubules Tube-like structures made up of proteins
They are used in movement of materials
vacuoles These are fluids-filled sacs

Store waste materials in a cell
To act as temporary stores for food such as
sugars
Help to control osmosis
Endoplasmic Reticulum( Smooth ER and SER: No attached ribosomes Has
Rough ER) enzymes that help build molecules
– Carbohydrates
– Lipids
RER: Ribosomes attached to surface
Manufacture proteins
Golgi Apparatus Involved in synthesis of plant cell wall

Packaging & shipping station of cell
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Fig 6.2: plant and animal cell structure
6.3 CELL DIVISION
The cell division is the formation of two or more daughter cells from a single mother cell. There are
two types of cell division:
• Mitosis
• Meiosis
A) Mitosis
Eukaryotes divide by a more complicated system called Mitosis. This is because:
 They have a nucleus which must be broken up and then reformed
 They have their DNA “packaged” in the form of Chromosomes. Chromosomes are composed
of Chromatin. Made of DNA Strands & Proteins
 They usually have more than 1 chromosome (Humans have 23 pairs)
 They have numerous organelles to equally share
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Fig6.3: DNA and Chromosome structure
Definition:
 The mitosis is the process of cell division which results in the production of two daughter cells
from a single parent cell.
 The daughter cells are identical to one another and to the original parent cell.
 Mitosis takes place in stages. These stages are: Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase.
During the different stages, the chromosomes attain various appearances and arrangement within the
cell.
Interphase:
 1st growth stage after cell division
 Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles
 Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities
Fig 6.4: Interphase

1. Prophase:
 Chromosomes Shorten and become visible.
 Centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell
 Nuclear envelope disappears
 Spindle Fibres begin to form
Fig 6.5: Prophase

2. Metaphase:
 Chromosomes meet in the middle!
 Chromosomes arrange at equator of cell, become attached to spindle fibres by
centromeres.
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Fig 6.6: metaphase
3. Anaphase
 Spindle fibers pull chromosomes apart
 ½ of each chromosome (called chromatid) moves to each daughter cell.
4. Telophase
 DNA spreads out
 2 nuclei form
 Cell wall pinches in to form the 2 new daughter cells
Fig 6.7: telophase

(Cytokinesis: cytoplasm division that occurs after nuclear division.)
Overview of Mitosis
Fig 6.8: overview mitosis

3) Meiosis
 Meiosis is the type of cell division by which germ cells (eggs and sperm) are produced.
 One parent cell produces four daughter cells.
 Daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes found in the original parent cell
Four stages can be described for each division of the nucleus.
Meiosis I: First division of meiosis
• Prophase 1: Each chromosome duplicates and remains closely associated. These are called
sister chromatids.
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• Metaphase 1: Chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
• Anaphase 1: Chromosome pairs separate with sister chromatids remaining together.
• Telophase 1: Two daughter cells are formed with each daughter containing only one
chromosome of the chromosome pair.
Meiosis II: Second Division of Meiosis
• Prophase 2: DNA does not replicate.
• Metaphase 2: Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell
• Anaphase 2: Centromeres divide and sister chromatids move separately to each pole.
• Telophase 2: Cell division is complete. Four haploid daughter cells are formed.
Table: Difference between mitosis and meiosis
Overview meiosis
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Fig6.9: overview meiosis
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Fig 6.10: Gametes formation in female and male
Why Do We Need Meiosis?
 It is the fundamental basis of sexual reproduction
 Two haploid (1n) gametes are brought together through fertilization to form a diploid (2n)
zygote
Fig 6.11: Fertilization
Unit 7: HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

Key Unit Competence: To be able to compare forms of heterotrophic nutrition and explain the process
of digestion in humans.
7.1 Introduction
Nutrition is the intake of nutrients and other substances into the body and making it part of body
tissues.
Green plants make their own food materials from simple inorganic substances like CO2 and water.
This type of nutrition is called autotrophism. The opposite of autotrophism is heterotrophism.
7.2 Forms of heterotrophic nutrition
Heterotrophism is the type of nutrition in which animals obtain ready-made food materials from their
environment. Such organisms are called heterotrophs.
They obtain nutrients by digesting organic compounds. Example of heterotrophs include: Animals,
fungi such as mushrooms and some protists like plasmodium, amoeba and paramecium. All
heterotrophs depend on autotrophs for their nutrition.
There are three main types of heterotrophic nutrition. These are:
 Holozoic nutrition
 Saprophytic nutrition
 Parasitic nutrition
Holozoic nutrition
This type of nutrition involves organisms with a developed digestive system.
Once consumed, the food particles are broken down into simpler forms and the process is termed as
digestion.
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Finally, the vital nutrients are absorbed by the body and the unwanted and undigested portions are
eliminated.
The process of expelling the waste material from the digestive tract via anus is defined as egestion.
Holozoic nutrition involves all the processes including ingestion, digestion and egestion.
Saprophytic nutrition
This is the type of nutrition found in saprophytes which obtain their food from dead and decaying
organic material. Examples of saprophytes include some fungi such as mushrooms and mucors
(Rhizopus) and bacteria. The saprophytes release enzymes which break down the decomposing food
material into simple food substances that are easily absorbed into their bodies.
Parasitic nutrition
This is the type of nutrition found in parasites which obtain their food material from other living
organisms. Parasites obtain nutrients from other live organisms which are referred to as hosts.
The host is always on the losing side as it does not benefit from the parasite.
Parasites have no intention of killing the host although sometimes a host may die due to the activities
of parasites.
The food material is easily absorbed because it is already in simple form.
Parasites living inside organisms are called endoparasites, for example, tape worm and liver fluke.
Parasites which live on the outside of an organism such as ticks and lice are called ectoparasites. All
these suck food materials and blood from the organism.
7.3 Dentition and dental formula
Mammals are said to be heterodont because their teeth have different shapes and sizes.
Fish and reptiles are said to be homodont because their teeth the same shape.
The feeding system of a mammal is adapted to its dentition:
Hence, carnivores have complete dentition with developed canines but herbivores such as ruminants
have incomplete dentition
Fig 7.1: types of dentition

7.3.1Structure and functions of human teeth.
Three regions can be distinguished in a tooth
 The root is firmly attached to the jaw by a surrounding layer of cement and strong connective
tissue.
 The neck is the area where the root(s) and crown meet.
 The crown projects above the gum. It is covered with a hard, white layer of enamel. Enamel is
the hardest substance in the body.
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 The largest part of the tooth consists of dentine. The dentine surrounds the cavity which
extends from the root to the crown.
Fig7.2: tooth structure

4 Types of teeth:Incisors
 for biting,
 Canine for tearing,
 Premolars for grinding ( crushing
Fig7.4: dental formula

7.3.2 Common dental diseases
The mouth cavity is a habitat for bacteria and other micro-organisms. These micro-organisms feed on
the food particles that remain trapped between the teeth after eating. Bacteria and their activities can be
a source of disease to both the teeth and the gum.
Dental caries
This is also called dental cavities. It is a dental disease that is caused by plaque found on the surface
of the teeth and also between the teeth. Plaque is made up of bacteria mixed with saliva.
The bacteria feed on sugary substances in the food left between the teeth. An acid is formed as a by-
product of this process. This acid slowly dissolves part of the tough tooth enamel. This is the
beginning of the formation of a tiny hole called a cavity.
The cavity traps more food and bacteria. Further bacterial action on the food causes the cavity to
become deeper, exposing the dentine. At this point some pain is felt. If the cavity becomes deep
enough to reach the pulp cavity, severe pain is felt due to exposure of the nerve endings. At this point,
this pain is called a toothache.
7.3.4 Care of teeth
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Most dental diseases can be prevented with proper care of the teeth and gums. This would require a
proper diet and good oral hygiene and other measures.
The following are some useful measures in preventing dental diseases.
 A diet rich in calcium and vitamin D is important in the growth of strong and healthy teeth.
 Brushing the teeth regularly, particularly after meals and before going to sleep to remove food
particles and to reduce the accumulation of plaque.
 Avoiding sweet and sugary food in order to prevent multiplication of bacteria on the teeth.
 Eating food that contains enough fibrous material to stimulate blood circulation in the teeth due
to the chewing process.
 The teeth should not be used to remove bottle tops or crack nuts. Such use of teeth could cause
cracks in them. Food particles and bacteria could occupy the cracks and cause dental cavities.
 Regular visits to a dentist will help in the detection of cavities and diseases of the gum at an
early stage.
7.4 The digestive system
The parts that make up the digestive system are the alimentary canal, liver, pancreas, gall bladder and
salivary glands.
The digestive system has three main functions: digestion of food, absorption of nutrients, and
elimination of solid waste.
7.4.1 The alimentary canal

The alimentary canal is also known as the gut. It is a muscular tube that runs from the mouth to the
anus.
The walls of the alimentary canal are lined with glands and blood vessels. As food passes through this
tube, it undergoes the process of digestion.
Digested food material is then absorbed into the blood system. Food that is not digested or cannot be
digested (indigestible) leaves the gut via the anus.
The different parts of the alimentary system include the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small and
large intestines. There are organs associated with the alimentary canal in relation to digestion.
7.4.2 Accessory Organs of the Digestive System
The accessory organs are the liver, gall bladder, pancreas and salivary glands. They make or store
substances needed for digestion.
 The liver is a large organ next to the stomach. It produces theBile
 The gall bladder is a small, pear-shaped structure below the liver. It stores the bile from the
liver until they are needed by the small intestine.
 The pancreas is a gland below the stomach. It produces the pancreatic juice.
 Salivary glands produce thesaliva. The saliva contains enzymes; moistens, softens and
lubricates food.
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Fig7.5: Digestive system
7.5 Digestion
Digestion is the process of breaking down food into components so that it can be absorbed by the
cells.
There are two types of digestion: mechanical and chemical.
 Mechanical digestion (Physical digestion) is the physical breakdown of food into smaller
pieces.
It takes place mainly in the mouth and stomach.
 Chemical digestion is the chemical breakdown of large, complex food molecules by the action
of enzymes into smaller, simpler nutrient molecules that can be absorbed by the blood. It takes
place in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine.
Digestive system Physical digestion Chemical digestion
Mouth The teeth help to digest the release of digestive enzymes by
food mechanically by salivary glands .
breaking it into smaller The major salivary enzyme is amylase
pieces. (ptyalin). salivary enzyme is amylase
The tongue helps mix the (ptyalin).
food with saliva and the Amylase begins the chemical
enzymes it contains. digestion of carbohydrates in the
When you swallow, the food.
lump of chewed food, It helps break down complex starch
now called a bolus, passes molecules into maltose.
into the pharynx.
Esophagus peristalsis. The esophagus does not produce
wave muscles contraction digestive enzymes and does not have
pushing food along the any other digestive functions/.
gut
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Fig 7.6 : Peristalsis
Stomach Churning movements of The gastric juice secreted by the
the stomach’s thick stomach contains digestive enzymes.
muscular walls break The main digestive enzyme in the
down food mechanically. stomach is pepsin.
The churning movements The pepsin breaks down proteins into
also mix the food with smaller molecules called peptides.
fluids secreted by the
stomach
The Small Intestine Shortest segment of the
a) the duodenum small intestine.It receives Chyme is mixed with bile from the
partially digested food liver and gallbladder, as well as
(known as chyme) from pancreatic juice produced by the
the stomach through the pancreas.
pyloric sphincter Pancreatic juice contains many
enzymes to break carbohydrates, lipids
and proteins
Pancreatic amylase breaks starch into
maltose
pancreatic lipase breaks lipids ( fats)
into fatty acids + Glycerol
Trypsin breaks Proteins into peptides
Chymotrypsin breaks proteins into
peptides
b)The Is the second part of the There is no digestion in the jejunum
jejunum small intestine. It is about
2.5 meters long.
Is covered with villi and
microvilli that increase
the area for absorption.
c) The ileum The ileum is the third part Intestinal juice contains many enzymes
of the small intestine. It is to break carbohydrates, lipids and
about 3.5 meters long. proteins
Like the jejunum, the maltase breaks maltose into glucose +
ileum is covered with villi glucose
and microvilli that sucrase breaks sucrose into glucose +
increase the area for fructose
absorption Lactase breaks lactose into glucose +
galactose
Peptidase breaks peptides into amino
acids .
Note:
The functions of the Hydrochloric acid(produced by the stomach)
 Gives the stomach a very acidic environment. This helps destroy any bacteria that have entered
the stomach in foods or beverages
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 An acidic environment is also needed for the stomach’s digestive enzymes to work.
 Prevent food fermentation in the stomach.
 Stops the action of salivary amylase.
 Role of the bile in digestion
Bile produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder acts as an emulsifier, breaking lipids into
smaller globules to increase their surface area.
Bile also reduces the acidity of the chyme entering from the highly acidic stomach.
7.6 Absorption of nutrients
Nutrients are absorbed into blood capillaries across the surface of the villi and microvilli.
Vitamins are absorbed unchanged. The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K are absorbed with other
lipids.
Water soluble vitamins are absorbed by simple diffusion with the exception of vitamin B12.
Minerals (electrolytes) are absorbed along the entire length of the small intestine.
Fig 7.7: Structure of a villus

The liver
All the absorbed nutrients are conveyed to the liver by the hepatic portal vein whereas fats are taken
into the lacteal which is branched to the lymphatic system.
The hepatic portal system connects capillaries of the intestines and other digestive organs to the liver.
From the liver, the blood reaches the inferior vena cava by the hepatic vein and then goes to the heart
to be distributed in other parts of our body.
The Large Intestine and Its Functions
From the small intestine, any remaining food waste passes into the large intestine.
The large intestine is a relatively wide tube that connects the small intestine with the anus.
It is about 1.5 meters long. The large intestine consists of three parts: the cecum, colon, and rectum.
Absorption of Water and Elimination of Wastes
 The cecum is the first part of the large intestine, where waste enters from the small intestine.
The waste is in a liquid state.
 the colon, which is the second part of the large intestine, excess water is absorbed.
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 After the excess water is absorbed, the remaining solid waste is called faeces. faeces contain
indigestible food substances such as fibre.
 Faeces accumulate in the rectum, which is the third part of the large intestine.
 As the rectum fills, the faeces become compacted. The faeces are stored in the rectum until
they are eliminated from the body.
Bacteria in the Large Intestine
 The large intestine provides a home for intestinal bacteria and absorbs the vitamins (B 12
and K) they produce.
 Intestinal bacteria play other helpful roles:
 Control the growth of harmful bacteria.
 Break down toxins before they can poison the body. Break down indigestible food components.
 Produce substances that help prevent colon cancer.
Anus: a sphincter controls the anus and opens: to let faeces through to the outside. (Egestion or
defecation)
7.7 Use of digested food
The products of digestion are carried round the body in the blood, cells absorb and use glucose, fats
and amino acids. This uptake and use of food are called assimilation.
7.8 Digestive disorders& diseases
(a) Constipation
Constipation is most often defined as having a bowel movement less than 3 times per week. It is often
associated with hard stools or problems passingstools.
You may have pain while passing stools or may be unable to have a bowel movement after straining or
pushing.
Constipation is most often caused by:
• Low-fiber diet.
• Lack of physical activity.
• Not drinking enough water.
• Delay in going to the toilet when you have the urge to move your bowels.
• Stress and travel can also contribute to constipation or other changes in bowel habits.
Constipation is controlled and prevented through:

• Drinking plenty of fluids each day (drink at least 8 glasses of water).
• Eating a lot of high fiber-foods such as fruits and vegetable or root crops.
• Exercising regularly.
• Using the toilet when you feel the urge. Do not delay.
(b) Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea is a condition associated with passing of loose or watery stool. In some people, diarrhea is
mild and goes away in a few days. In other people, it may last longer.
Diarrhoea can make you feel weak and dehydrated.
The most common cause of diarrhoea is the stomach flu (Viral gastroenteritis). This mild viral
infection goes away on its own within a few days. Eating or drinking food or water that contains
certain types of bacteria or parasites can also lead to diarrhoea.
This problem is often called food poisoning.
Most times diarrhoea is treated at home by oral rehydration therapy (ORT). ORT is the giving of fluid
by mouth to prevent or correct the dehydration that is a result of diarrhoea.
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As soon as diarrhoea begins, treatment using home remedies to prevent dehydration must be started. If
adults or children have not been given extra drinks, or if in spite of this dehydration does occur, they
must be treated with a special drink made with oral rehydration salts (ORS).
(c) Heartburn
Heartburn is a painful burning feeling just below or behind the breastbone. Most of the time it comes
from the esophagus. The pain often rises in your chest from your stomach. It may also spread to your
neck or throat.
Heart burn is treated through diet change or medication.
(d) Abdominal bloating
Abdominal bloating is a condition in which the belly (abdomen) feels full and tight. Your belly may
look swollen (distended). This condition can be caused by swallowing air, constipation and overeating.
(e) Nausea and vomiting
Nausea is feeling an urge to vomit.
Vomiting or throwing-up isforcing the contents of the stomach up through the esophagus and out of
the mouth. Many common problems that may cause nausea and vomiting include:
• Food allergies.
• Infections of the stomach or bowels, such as the “stomach flu” or food poisoning.
• Morning sickness during pregnancy.
(f) Gastritis is inflammation of the lining of the stomach. It causes abdominal pain.
(g) A stomach ulcer is a sore in the lining of the stomach. It causes severe abdominal pain and
bleeding.
Some ulcers are caused by excess secretion of gastric juice due to nervousness or stress. Ulcers are
treated by diet, medication or by surgery in severe cases.
7.6 Food contamination
Food contamination is the presence in food of harmful chemicals and microorganisms such as bacteria,
viruses and parasites, which can cause illness.
Toxins produced by certain bacteria can cause food poisoning. Food contamination can be caused by:
 Chemicals such as pesticides, certain cleaning compounds and sometimes by use of improper
containers for cooking or storing food.
 Improper handling, preparing and storing of food.
 Poor personal hygiene habits.
 Improperly cleaned and sanitized eating and cooking utensils and equipment.
 Contamination of food, utensils and equipment from flies, roaches and other insects and pests.
 Use of foods from unapproved sources.
UNIT 8: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS

Key Unit Competence: To be able to relate the structure of the circulatory system to its functions.
8.1 Introduction
All organisms need their cells to be supplied with oxygen and food in order to function. Metabolic
wastes like carbon dioxide and urea from these cells need to be eliminated as they may poison the
body.
The circulatory system, transport system of the body, connects all parts of the body. It conveys nutrient
oxygen to all cells in the body; metabolic wastes use the track to various excretory organs.
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8.2 Types of circulation
There are two types of circulatory systems in animals: closed circulatory system and open
circulatory system.
8.2.1 Open circulatory system
This is a circulatory system in which blood is in contact with body cells.
In the open circulatory system, blood does not stay inside the vessels all the time because they are
open-ended. Instead, the blood is pumped out of the vessels by a heart or pumping organ into a space
within the body known as the haemocoel.
This means that blood is in direct contact with the cells. The cells exchange materials directly with the
blood. This blood eventually flows back into the heart due to the movement of the body muscles of the
organism.
Insects’ circulatory systems consist of a long tubular heart along the back side of the organism. When
the heart contracts, blood in it is forced out at its front end. The blood then flows into the haemocoel or
body space where exchange of materials with the tissues takes place. It then re-enters the heart through
openings called ostia.
The open circulatory system works best in organisms with a small body cavity, for example, insects. It
is not efficient for large organisms such as vertebrates.
Fig 8.1: Open circulatory system

8.2.3 Closed circulatory system
This a circulatory system in which blood remains enclosed in a system of vessels. It circulates within
these vessels due to the pumping action of the heart which is part of the system.
In this way waste substances from the tissues enter the blood vessels, while food substances from the
blood vessels enter the tissues.
The closed circulatory system is found in annelids and vertebrates like mammals. It has an advantage
over the open circulatory system because the pressure of blood in it is high. This means that blood
circulates faster and hence transports substances to and from the tissues faster than in the open system.
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Fig 8.2: Open circulatory vs. closed circulatory system
A closed circulatory system is a characteristic of vertebrates. However, there are significant differences
in the structure of the heart and the circulation of blood among the different vertebrate groups due to
adaptation and internal body structure (anatomy). There are two types of closed circulatory systems:
single and closed circulatory system.
(a) Single circulatory system
Fig 8.3: Single circulatory system

This is a type of circulatory system in which blood passes through the heart once before it goes to the
body. It is found in animals such as fishes.
The atrium collects blood that has returned from the body, while the ventricle pumps the blood to the
gills where gaseous exchange occurs and the blood is re-oxygenated; this is called gill circulation. The
blood then continues through the rest of the body before arriving back at the atrium; this is called
systemic circulation.
(b) Double circulatory system
This is the type of circulatory system in which blood passes through the heart twice before completing
a full circuit. It is found in the body of mammals and birds.
Pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart to the lungs and returns
oxygenated blood back to the heart.
Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body, and returns
deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
Fig 8.4(a):Double circulatory system
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The human circulatory system
 The adult human heart consists of two separated pumps, the right side which pumps
deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulation,
 And the left side which pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation.
Pulmonary circulation or small circulation

 The deoxygenated blood (carbon dioxide rich blood) leaves the heart through the pulmonary
artery that carries it to the lungs where gaseous exchange will occur.
 The oxygenated blood returns to the heart through four pulmonary veins.
General circulation or systemic circulation

 The oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium trough the pulmonary veins
 The left atrium pushes the blood to the left ventricle that pumps it to the aorta artery.
 The aorta distributes the oxygenated blood to the arteries that in turn distribute in the whole
body.
 The cells draw from it oxygen and nutrients and release in it waste and carbon dioxide.
 During the systemic circulation, blood is filled with nutrients in the intestines and gets rid of
waste in the kidneys.
 Carbonated blood ( deoxygenated blood) collected by the venous capillaries in all tissues is
carried to the venules
 Then the vein that widen increasingly move it to the vena cava connected to the right atrium.
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Fig 8.4(b): human circulation
Advantages of double circulatory system over the single circulatory system
 Blood flows into and from the body at relatively higher pressure therefore, blood can be
pumped for a long distance.
 Oxygen and nutrients plus hormones are delivered to tissues at higher speed than in the single
circulatory system.
 Waste products are removed at relatively higher speed from tissues to excretory organs.
8.3 Human circulatory system
The transport system in humans is also called the blood circulatory system. It has three elements: The
blood vessels, the heart and the blood. The pattern in all mammals is similar, so we will look at the
human transport system as a good example.
8.3.1 Anatomy of the heart
The human heart is a big of reddish –brown muscle, that beats right from the early days f our
development in the uterus untilthe end of our life.
a) Location of the heart
The heart is located in the thorax between two lungs, but it leans on the left lung. Its tip ( apex) points
down left just above the diaphragm, it weights on average 250 g to 300g and is a little larger than a
fist.
b) Heart description
Cavities: the human heart is divided into 4 cavities which are: 2 lower ventricles and 2 upper atria.
There are also coronary vessels (artery and vein) that irrigate the heart. Inside the heart , a thick wall,
the interventricular septum separates the 2 ventricles and a thinner wall separates the 2 atria.
Valves
 The right atrium (RA) communicates with the right ventricle trough Tricuspid valve.
 The left atrium communicates with the left ventricle trough the bicuspid or mitral valve.
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Wall of the heart
From outside to the interior, it consists of 3 layers:
- Pericardium: double envelope that covers the heart completely; supports the heart in place.
- Myocardium: is the muscle layer of the heart, it is responsible for cardiac contractions.
- Endocardium: a smooth membrane that covers the inside of the heart but also the blood vessels
leading to the heart.
Fig8.5: Longitudinal section of the human heart

c) The heart beat
The heart beat is felt as a pulse. A pulse is the rate at which the heart beats. The heart beat takes
place in a series of steps as outlined below:
- Atria contract while ventricles relax
- Ventricles contract while atria relax
- The cycle is complete.
One heart beat consist of a diastole phase and a systole phase.

- Diastole: refers to the phase when the ventricles relax in order to allow blood to flow into the
heart. During this phase, the ventricular volume increases and the pressure decreases.
- Systole: refers to the phase, when the ventricles contract to force the blood into arteries while
atria are relaxed. The volume of ventricles decreases while the pressure increases, forcing the
blood to flow out of the heart.
Note: movement of blood in the heart is maintained in a single direction that is from atria to ventricles
then to blood vessels. This is due to the fact that the heart contains valves which are tough membranes.
Effect of physical activity on heart rate
The normal average heartbeat of an adult at rest is 72 beats per minute. This is also known as the
pulse rate. It increases during vigorous activity. An increased heartbeat circulates blood with oxygen
and glucose needed to produce energy for the vigorous activity in the muscle tissue faster and takes
away carbon dioxide and other wastes away from the tissue. The pulse rate also increases during
situations of fear or excitement.
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8.3.2 Blood vessels
In man blood circulation takes place in closed tubes known as blood vessels. Because of these closed
tubes, the system of circulation is referred as a closed circulatory system. These vessels are found
throughout the body and they are differentiated into arteries, veins and capillaries.
Heart vessels:
Arteries are connected to ventricles.
The right ventricleis connected to the pulmonary artery through an opening with a valve, the right
sigmoid valve or the pulmonary valve.
The left ventricle is connected to the aortic artery (aorta) trough an opening with a valve, the left
sigmoid valve or the artery valve.
Veins are connected to atria
The inferior and superior vena cava flows into the right atrium and the pulmonary veins flow into
the left atrium.
Fig 8.6: blood vessels structures

Table: Comparison of the three types of blood vessels
Arteries Veins capillaries
1 Have a narrow lumen Have a wider lumen Have a very narrow lumen
2 Rigid, tough Less rigid ( smooth) Very thin
3 Impermeable impermeable Permeable ( are site of diffusion into

and out of the body tissues and cells )
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4 Absence of valve Presence of valve ( to Absence of valve
prevent the back flow of
blood)
5 Have a pulse No pulse No pulse
6 Blood flows in it at Blood flow in it without Blood flows in it at very low pressure
high pressure and high pressure and at a low speed and at low speed
speed
7 Usually carry Usually carry de- carry de-oxygenated blood and

oxygenated blood ( a oxygenated blood ( a part oxygenated blood
part from pulmonary from pulmonary veins)
artery)
8 Carry blood away from Carry blood towards the Carry blood between arteries and
the heart heart veins
Fig 8.7: Comparison of the three types of blood vessel

8.3.4 Components of blood
The blood is a red liquid in a constant circulation in a vast network of capillaries, arteries and veins
under the impulse of a central pump, the heart.
It’s a thick and warm (37oC) liquid.An adult contains about 4 and 5 litres of blood equivalent to 8% of
its body mass.
It has a pHof 7.35-7.45; making it slightly basic (less than 7 is considered acidic).
Blood in the arteries is a brighter red than blood in the veins because of the higher levels oxygen found
in the arteries.
A. Blood composition
 If you take a blood sample and examine it under the microscope it reveals the following
component The liquid plasma
 The red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
 The white blood cells (Leucocytes)
 The platelets (Thrombocytes9
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Fig 8.8: Blood components
The plasma
It’s a liquid part of the blood and appears almost colourless.It’s about 97% of water and 3% consists of
dissolved substances and blood cells.
The dissolved substances include: nutrients substances such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and
minerals; Enzymes; Hormones, Antigens, Antibodies, Urea, Blood proteins such as albumen:
Fibrinogen, globulin, etc...)
Red blood cells
These are minute biconcave discs without a nucleus in humans. Their cytoplasm has a red pigment
called hemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is a very special red pigment, a large protein molecule folded around four Iron (Fe)
atoms. The haemoglobin reacts very easily with oxygen to form Oxyhaemoglobin.
 Hb + O2 → HbO2 ( oxyhaemoglobin)
Note: because red blood cells (RBCs) have no nucleus, they live only about 120 days in the body, so
they are constantly being replaced. The old RBCs are destroyed in the liver and the spleen
Fig8.9: Red blood cell

White blood cells
 They have irregular shape form (therefore can change their shape).
 They are produced in the bone marrow, lymphatic tissues and spleen.
 They are larger than the red blood cells
 Their cytoplasm is clear and lack of pigment
 They have a life span of 21 days
 There are several types (monocytes, lymphocytes)
Functions: their major function is defence against diseases. They do this by:
 Engulfing and digesting bacteria (phagocytes)
 Producing antibodies which help prevent diseases.
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Platelets (thrombocytes
These are star- shaped cell fragments. They have nucleus. They have life span of 4 days.
 Functions: they are responsible for blood clotting.
Fig8.10: Blood cells

Table: Comparison of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelet
Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets
Bi-concave disc in shape Irregular shape Cell fragments
Have no nucleus Have nucleus No nucleus
Cytoplasm packed Several different types, Composed of
with haemoglobin some with granules in the cytoplasm surrounded
cytoplasm, some without by a membrane
Very many in number. Fewer than red blood Few in number
Smaller than white blood cells. Larger than red Tiny
cells. blood cells.
Made in red bone marrow Lymphocytes are made Made in the red bone
e.g. ribs and vertebrae in the bone marrow but marrow
migrate to lymph nodes
B. Functions of blood
Blood has three main functions: transport, protection and regulation.
Transport
 Blood transports the following substances:
 Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the lungs and rest of the body
 Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the body
 Waste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneys
 Hormones from the glands in which they are produced to their target cells
 Heat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperature
Protection
 Leukocytes, or white blood cells, destroy invading microorganisms and cancer cells
 Antibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substances
 Platelet factors initiate blood clotting and help minimize blood loss
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Regulation
 Blood helps regulate:
 pH by interacting with acids and bases
 Water balance by transferring water to and from tissues
8.4 Blood clotting

 Coagulation, or blood clotting, is a complex process by which blood forms solid clots.
 (Clot: a thick mass of coagulated liquid, especially blood, or of material stuck together.)
 Coagulation is important to stop bleeding and begin repair of damaged blood vessels.
Blood clotting disorders can lead to an increased risk of bleeding or clotting inside a blood vessel.
Platelets are important for the proper coagulation of blood
Clotting mechanism
 Clotting is started almost immediately when an injury damages the endothelium of a blood
vessel.
 Platelets clump together, forming a plug at the site of injury.
 Then, proteins in the plasma called coagulation factors, form a tough protein called fibrin.
 The fibrin strands form a web across the platelet plug, trapping red blood cells before they can
leave through the wound site.
 This mass of platelets, fibrin, and red blood cells forms a clot that hardens into a scab.
Note:Certain nutrients are needed for the proper functioning of the clotting mechanism. Two of these
are calcium and vitamin K.
Fig 8.11:Blood clotting process

8.5 ABO Blood groups
 The composition of blood in humans is different from one person to another due the presence
of some molecules on red blood cells which are antigens. And in the plasma which are
antibodies.
 Basing on these characteristics the human blood was divided into 4 groups, namely:
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Group A, Group B, Group AB and Group O.
 The red blood cells can have 2 types of antigens also called (agglutinogens) A and B or the
absence of antigens O.
 As for the plasma, it can contain 2 types of antibodies also called (agglutinins): anti-A and
anti-B or the absence of these antibodies.
Table: Blood groups and their composition
Blood group Antigen on RBCs Antibody in plasma
A A anti-B
B B anti-A
AB A and B none
O none anti-A and anti-B
8.5.1 Blood transfusion

A massive loss or decrease in blood can cause death unless the replacement is fast. The only source of
supply is the man himself since all attempts to make artificial blood have failed. The transfer of blood
from one man to another is called blood transfusion.
The person receiving blood is called recipient, while the one giving blood is the donor.
Before a blood transfusion, it is vital that the blood group of both donor and recipient are known, so
that the right blood can be given to prevent the blood from clotting and clumping (agglutination).
Note: Among all these groups, only group O is the universal donor and it can give blood safely to all
other groups. The reason is that there is no antigen on its red blood cells. Only the group AB is the
universal recipient; it can receive safely blood of any other blood group. The reason is that it has no
antibodyin its plasma.
Table: possible blood transfusion
Recipient→
Donors A B AB O
↓
A √ × √ ×
B × √ √ ×
AB × × √ ×
O √ √ √ √
True (√) and false (×)
8.5.2 Rhesus Factors
 While studying Rhesus monkeys, a certain blood protein was discovered.
 The presence of the protein, or lack of it, is referred to as the Rh (for Rhesus) factor.
 If your blood does contain the protein, your blood is said to be Rh positive (Rh+).
 If your blood does not contain the protein, your blood is said to be Rh negative (Rh-).
It can be a problem if a woman is pregnant and she is Rh negative and the fetus is Rh positive,
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 When a Rh- pregnant woman is carrying a Rh+ fetusand the two types of blood come in
contact, the woman s blood produces rhesus antibodies.
 This causes clumping of the red blood cells in the red blood cells in the fœtus
 This is called Erythroblastosis fetalis;
 This condition can be prevented by injecting the mother with an anti- Rhesus serum, which
prevents the production of rhesus antibodies.
8.6 The Lymphatic system structure
The lymphatic system is composed of a network of vessels that penetrate nearly every tissue of the
body and a collection of tissues and organs that produce immune cells.
The lymphatic system has three functions:
1. Fluid recovery: Fluid is continually filtered from our blood capillaries into the tissue spaces.
Each day, they (blood capillaries) lose an excess of water and the plasma proteins.
The lymphatic system absorbs this excess and returns it to the blood stream by way of the lymphatic
vessels. If not for this fluid recovery, the circulatory system would not have enough blood to function
properly.
2. Immunity: As the lymphatic system recovers excess tissue fluid, it also picks up foreign cells and
chemicals from the tissues. On its way back to the bloodstream, the fluid passes through lymph nodes,
where immune cells stand guard against foreign matter.
When they detect it, they activate a protective immune response
3. Lipid absorption: In the small intestine, special lymphatic vessels called lacteals absorb dietary
lipids that are not absorbed by the blood capillaries.
The components of the lymphatic system are:
 Lymph: the recovered fluid
 Lymphatic vessels: which transport the lymph;
 Lymphatic organs: in which these cells are especially concentrated and which are set off from
surrounding organs by connective tissue capsules. These organs include the lymph nodes,
tonsils, thymus and the spleen.
Table: Comparison between blood circulatory system and the lymphatic system
The Lymphatic system Blood circulatory system

1. Has no pumping organs Has a pumping organ called heart
2. Composed of one type of vessels Composed of three types of vessels
3. Has nodes called lymph nodes Has no nodes
4. The transporting fluid within vessels is The transporting fluid within its vessels is
lymph blood
5. Lymph has only one type of cells called Blood has three major types of blood cells
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lymphocytes namely: red blood cells, leucocytes and
platelets
6. Lymph flows relatively slowly Blood flows faster
Contain valves throughout the veins and at

7. Contain valves throughout lymphatic vessels bases of arteries
Fig 8.12: Relationship of lymphatic vessels to the cardiovascular system
8.7 Diseases of the circulatory system

1. High blood pressure
Blood pressure is the measurement of how much force is used to pump blood through your arteries.
If you have high blood pressure, also called hypertension, it means the force is higher than it should
be. High blood pressure can damage your heart and lead to heart disease, stroke, or kidney disease.
2. Atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease
Atherosclerosis, also known as hardening of the arteries, occurs when plaque builds up on the walls of
your arteries and eventually blocks blood flow.
Plaque is made of cholesterol, fat, and calcium.
Coronary artery disease indicates that the plaque buildup in your arteries has caused the arteries to
narrow and harden. Blood clots can further block the arteries.
Coronary artery disease develops over time.
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You can have it but not be aware of any symptoms. Other times, it may cause chest pain or the
sensation of heaviness in the chest.
Fig 8.13: Atherosclerosis

3. Heart attack
A heart attack occurs when not enough blood reaches your heart.
This can happen due to artery blockage.
Heart attacks damage the heart muscle and are medical emergencies.
Symptoms
 pain in the chest that feels like mild or severe discomfort, pressure, fullness, or squeezing
 pain that radiates from the jaw, shoulder, arm, or across the back
 shortness of breath
 Sweating, nausea, irregular, heartbeat, unconsciousness.
4. Heart failure
The heart failure occurs when the heart muscle is weakened or damaged. It can no longer pump the
volume of blood needed through the body.
Heart failure normally occurs when you’ve had other heart problems, such as a heart attack or coronary
artery disease.
Early symptoms of heart failure include More severe symptoms include
 fatigue,  rapid breathing,
 swelling in your ankles  chest pain, and
 Increased need to urinate at night.  Fainting.
5. Stroke
Strokes often occur when a blood clot blocks an artery in the brain and reduces the blood supply.
They also can happen when a blood vessel in the brain breaks open. Both events keep blood and
oxygen from reaching the brain.As a result, parts of the brain are likely to be damaged.
A stroke requires immediate medical attention.
You can identify a stroke: face drooping, arms weakness, speech difficulty.
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Fig 8.14: face drooping
6. Sickle Cell Anaemia
Your blood is unable to circulate properly. There is no prevention for sickle-cell anemia since you are
born with it.
Treatments: Blood Transfusions and Medication
Fig 8.15 : Sickle red blood cells

7. Haemophilia
Blood does not clot properly.
Prevention: No prevention, you are born a haemophiliac.
Treatment: Transfusions of blood clotting factors.
8.9 Circulatory system health
 Do exercise/ sport
 take rest
 Avoid stress and anxiety
 Eat a balanced diet
 Avoid extremely tight clothing
 Avoid alcohol and tobacco!!!
Unit 9: CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Key Unit Competence: To be able to compare energy yield in aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
9.1. The need for energy in living organisms
All living organisms require a continuous supply of energy to stay alive, either from the absorption of
light energy or from chemical potential energy (energy stored in nutrient molecules).
The process of photosynthesis transfers light energy to chemical potential energy, and so almost all
life on Earth depends on photosynthesis, either directly or indirectly.
Photosynthesis supplies living organisms with two essential requirements: an energy supply and
usable carbon compounds.
All biological macromolecules such as carbohydrates lipids, proteins and nucleic acids contain carbon.
All living organisms therefore need a source of carbon.
Organisms that can use an inorganic carbon source in the form of carbon dioxide are called
9.2 Respiration
Respiration is the process by which food substances are chemically broken down in all living cells to
release energy, carbon dioxide and water.
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Organisms require energy for all the functions of cells. These functions include : movement,
conducting nerve impulse, growth, secretion of enzyme, repair of worn out cells , synthesis of protein,
active transport , regulation of the body temperature, ….
9.3 Mitochondrion
The mitochondrion (in plural mitochondria) is the organelle in which respiration takes place.
Mitochondria are oval-shaped and have two membranes separated by a fluid-filled cavity.
The outer membrane is smooth while the inner membrane has folds called cristae. These cristae are
the sites of respiration. The inner cavity is called matrix.
Fig 9.1:The mitochondria structure

9.4 Types of respiration
There are two types of respiration, namely:
 Aerobic respiration (takes place in the mitochondrion
 Anaerobic respiration (takes place in the cytoplasm)
a) Aerobic respiration
During aerobic respiration, food substances are broken down in the presence of oxygen. The energy
produced is used to combine adenosine diphosphate (ADP) with a phosphate molecule (P) to form
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ADP + P+ Energy → ATP
ATP is a high energy molecule that stores energy and provides it to cells when required Respiration
takes place in a series of reactions in the presence of respiratory enzymes.
There are two major phases of respiration, namely Glycolysisand Krebs cycle.
1. Glycolysis:occurs in the cytoplasmand requires enzymes (kinases), where the glucose is broken
down to form pyruvic acid and energy.
Glucose → Pyruvic acid + Energy (2 ATP)
2. The Krebs Cycle takes place in the mitochondria matrix.
In the presence of oxygen, the pyruvic acid formed during glycolysis is oxidized in a series of
reactions to form energy, carbon dioxide and water.
Pyruvic acid + oxygen → carbon dioxide +water +energy (36 ATP).
b) Anaerobic respiration
In animals, in the absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is partially broken to lactic acid. In plants, pyruvic
acid from glycolysis is broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
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In plants
Pyruvic acid → Ethanol +carbon dioxide +energy
In animals
Pyruvic acid → Lactic acid +energy
Note: most plant and animal tissues respire anaerobically for a limited period. Since the products are
toxic. Excess lactic acid can cause fatigue and muscle cramps.
The oxygen required to get rid of the lactic acid that accumulates in the body is referred to as oxygen
debt. This accumulation occurs when the supply of oxygen is less than the demand. Breathing more
rapidly and deeply increases the supply of oxygen to the tissues. Lactic acid is then oxidized to carbon
dioxide, water and energy.
Organisms that respire anaerobically are referred to as anaerobes. They include bacteria, yeast, and
fungi. There are two types of anaerobes
 Obligate anaerobes: can only live and respire in the absence of oxygen. They die in the
presence of oxygen
 Facultative anaerobes: respire both in the presence and absence of oxygen.
9.5 Respiratory substrate
Respiratory substrates are energy-rich foods that can be oxidized to release energy. Examples include
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Table: Respiratory substrates

Respiratory Description Energy produced / KJ
substrate
Carbohydrates Glucose, fructose, and galactose 1 gram of glucose produces 17 KJ

are the main sources of energy.
Fats They are insoluble and not easily 1 gram of fat produces 38 KJ
transported to the site of
respiration.
Fats produce more energy but
they require more oxygen for
oxidation than carbohydrates
Proteins Are only used in situations of 1 gram produces 22 KJ

starvation
9.6 Muscle cramps

A muscle cramp is an involuntarily and forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax.
Muscle cramps can occur in any muscle; cramps of the leg muscles and feet are particularly common.
Almost everyone experiences a muscle cramp at some time in their life.
Muscle cramps may occur during exercise, at rest, or at night, depending upon the exact cause.
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Causes of muscle cramps
Overuse of a muscle, dehydration, or simply holding a position for a prolonged period can cause a
muscle cramp.
In many cases, however, the cause isn't known. Although most muscle cramps are harmless, some may
be related to an underlying medical condition, such as:
 Inadequate blood supply.

Narrowing of the arteries that deliver blood to your legs can produce cramp-like pain in your legs and
feet while you're exercising. These cramps usually go away soon after you stop exercising.
 Nerve compression
Compression of nerves in your spine also can produce cramp-like pain in your legs.
 Mineral depletion
Too little potassium, calcium or magnesium in your diet can contribute to leg cramps. Medications
often prescribed for high blood pressure also can deplete these minerals.
9.7 Factors which can affect the rate of respiration
Amount of nutrients: if the amount of nutrients is high, then the energy is high in the cellular
respiration.
Temperature: the lower the temperature is, the slower the rate of cellular respiration because enzyme
reactions require optimum temperatures
State of the cell: metabolically active cells such as neurons, root of human hair need to store energy in
the body because of the many metabolic reactions that take place in them.
Water: It is the medium where the reaction happens. When a cell is dehydrated the respiration and
other metabolism decreases.
O2/CO2 content: higher O2 and lower CO2make higher respiration rates.
9.8 Applications of anaerobic respiration
Although anaerobic respiration supplies only little energy to respiring cells, it has some large scale or
industrial application useful to human beings.
Fermentation is the production of ethanol. It occurs when yeast breaks down sugars in the absence of
oxygen. Fermentation is used in:
a) Bread making
During baking, yeast is mixed with water and sugar to activate it. The mixture is added to flour to
make dough, and left in a warm place. The dough rises as the yeast respires and releases carbon
dioxide, which gets trapped in the dough. When the dough is cooked, the high temperature kills the
yeast and evaporates any alcohol formed. Air spaces are left where the carbon dioxide is trapped,
which gives the bread a light texture.
b) Brewing
To make beer, yeast is dissolved in a warm liquid containing the sugar maltose. The yeast respires
anaerobically during fermentation producing an alcohol (ethanol) making the drink alcoholic. Carbon
dioxide present makes the drink fizzy.
c) In the dairy industry

A range of products can be made when milk is fermented. Milk contains lactic acid bacteria which
anaerobically break down milk sugar called lactose to form lactic acid which makes the milk sour.
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Different products can beformed industrially by controlling the conditions under which the
fermentation takes place. Some of the dairy products that can be formed this way are cheese, butter,
yoghurt and cream.
d) Sewage treatment plants
Most raw sewage that leaves households in towns and cities is directed to sewage treatment plants.
Certain bacteria are introduced into the sewage to break it down by anaerobic respiration.
This reduces the bulk of the sewage which on further treatment is purified and is safe for release into
rivers or water bodies.
e) In agriculture
The making of silage is an anaerobic fermentation process which is carried out on farms.
It preserves the food value of grass for animals. It also improves the flavor and taste of the grass.
Bacteria in grass use the natural sugar found in grass and bring about fermentation.
f) Production of biogas
Manure from cows or other wastes of plant material can be used as a substrate for fermentation. A
mixture of microorganisms is used in the fermentation which can produce methane. Biogas contains
70% methane. The gas can be used for cooking and lighting
Unit 10: SKIN AND HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS

Key Unit Competence: To be able to explain homeostatic mechanisms and the role of skin in
temperature control
10.1 Introduction
To function efficiently, organisms have control systems to keep internal conditions near constant, a
feature known as homeostasis. This requires information about conditions inside the body and the
surroundings, which are detected by sensory cells.
Some of the physiological factors controlled in homeostasis in mammals are: body temperature;
Metabolic wastes, Blood pH, Blood glucose level, Water potential of the blood , The concentrations in
the blood of the respiratory gases(oxygen and carbon dioxide)
10.2 The Skin
The skin is sense organ which is sensitive to touch or contact, to the temperature (high and low), to the
pressure and to the pain. It gives three sensations:
a) tactile or mechanic sensation,
b) thermal sensation,
c) painful sensation.
Structure
The skin is the outer covering membrane of the body and it is extended to natural orifices with the
muqueous that lines the body cavities in communication with the exterior (gut, nasal cavity).
 It is 1.5 to 4mm thick, soft and elastic.

 It has hair and thin orifices; the pores. Its surface area is covered by fold and edges which at
the end of the fingers have different lines, prints or papillary folds which are used to identify
individuals.
 A transverse section of the skin shows that the skin is made of 2 parts, the epidermis and the
dermis.
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a) The epidermis: it is the superficial part containing three layers of cells such as the corneous layer,
the living layer and the Malpighian layer. Corneous layer consists of flattened and dead cells that
regularly break away and fall. This phenomenon is the desquamation.
Living layer consists of living cells constantly in continuous division. Some of them are melanocytes,
they produce melanin (skin pigment). Melanin protects the skin against rays of sunshine.
b) The dermis: is the internal part of the skin. Very thick and contains numerous blood capillaries,
sensory receptor, glands hairs and nails.
i) Sensory receptors: They are bigger than receptors in other sense organs, reason why they are called
corpuscles. There are several corpuscles in the skin, this depend upon the type of excitement each one
is able to receive.
ii) Glands: the main are:
-Sebaceous gland; they pour out a fatty liquid called sebum. It protects the hair and make them supple
and enables the skin to be waterproof (not get wet with water)
- Sweat glands: they secrete the sweat and pour it at surface. The sweat cools the body during
hotness. So, it contributes to regulate the body temperature.
iii) Hairs: Are organs of tact, they are tactile organs. Each hair is connected to a muscle, the erector
muscle which erects the hair.
Note: For animal, the hairs contribute to regulate the body temperature. In fact, in hairy animals the
erector muscles are tugged to relax when the body is over heated This make the hairs lie flat the body
surface reducing any insulating effect and increasing heat loss by convention and radiation.
The nails: they protect the bud of the fingers
The blood capillaries: They contribute to feed and to warm up the skin.
Note: The lower part of the dermis contains a fatty substance, the sub-cutaneous fat. It protects the
body against low temperature and works as an insulator.
Fig10.1: the skin structure
10.3 The skin and temperature regulation

The skin of a mammal like a human assist in homeostasis (keeping different aspects of the body
constant e.g. temperature). It does this by reacting differently to hot and cold conditions so that the
inner body temperature remains more or less constant.
In hot conditions
1. Sweat glands under the skin secrete the sweat which travels up the sweat duct, through the sweat
pore and onto the surface of the skin. This causes heat loss via evaporative cooling; however, a lot of
essential water is lost.
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2. The hairs on the skin lie flat, these flat hairs increase the flow of air next to the skin increasing
heat loss by convection. When environmental temperature is above core body temperature, sweating is
the only physiological way for humans to lose heat.
3. Vasodilatation of arterioles occurs; this is the process of relaxation of smooth muscle in arteriole
walls allowing increased blood flow through the artery. This redirects blood into the superficial
capillaries in the skin increasing heat loss by convection and conduction.
In cold conditions
1. Sweat stops being produced.
2. The hairs stand on end which acts as an insulating layer, trapping heat. This is what also causes
goose bumps since humans don't have very much hair and the contracted muscles can easily be seen.
3. Vasoconstriction of arterioles (arterioles carrying blood to superficial capillaries under the surface
of the skin can shrink constrict), thereby rerouting blood away from the skin and towards the warmer
core of the body. This prevents blood from losing heat to the surroundings and also prevents the core
temperature dropping further. This process is called vasoconstriction. It is impossible to prevent all
heat loss from the blood, only to reduce it. In extremely cold conditions excessive vasoconstriction
leads to numbness and pale skin
4. Muscles can also receive messages from the thermo-regulatory centre of the brain (the
hypothalamus) to cause shivering. This increases heat production as respiration is an exothermic
reaction in muscle cells. Shivering is more effective than exercise at producing heat because the animal
remains still. This means that less heat is lost to the environment via convection.
10.4 Homeostasis and negative feedback
Negative feedback is a reaction that causes a decrease in function. It occurs in response to some kind
of stimulus. Often it causes the output of a system to be lessened; so, the feedback tends to stabilize the
system.
Here are examples of biological negative feedback:
Human body temperature: the hypothalamus of a human responds to temperature changes and
responds accordingly. If the body temperature drops, the body shivers to bring up the temperature and
if it is too warm, the body will sweat to cool down due to evaporation.
Human blood pressure: when blood pressure increases, signals are sent to the brain from the blood
vessels. Signals are sent to the heart from the brain and heart rate slows down, thus helping blood
pressure to return to normal.
Regulation of blood sugar in humans: when blood sugar rises, insulin (hormone produced by the
pancreas) sends a signal to the liver, muscles and other cells to store the excess glucose. Some is stored
as body fat and other is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Production of human red blood cells: a decrease of oxygen is detected by the kidneys and they
secrete erythropoietin. This hormone stimulates the production of red blood cells.
10.5 Homeostatic control of blood glucose level
The pancreas
The pancreas is an organ located in the abdomen. The pancreas has two main functions:
Exocrine Function: The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important to
digestion. These enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin to digest proteins; amylase for the
digestion of carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats.
Endocrine Function: The endocrine component of the pancreas consists of islet cells (islets of
Langerhans) that create and release important hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Two of the main pancreatic hormones are insulin, which acts to lower blood sugar, and glucagon,
which acts to raise blood sugar.
(Each islet has a population of alpha cells which secrete glucagon and beta cells which secrete the
hormone insulin.)
Maintaining proper blood sugar levels is crucial to the functioning of key organs including the brain,
liver, and kidneys.
Mechanism of glucose regulation
When the blood glucose level rises, cells of pancreas are stimulated and secrete insulin in the blood so,
insulin acts to reduce the level until the blood glucose concentration returns to its original or normal.
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The effects of insulin are the following:
-To stimulate the uptake of glucose into cells all over the body.
-To increase the rate of glucose consumption by the body’s cells to produce energy.
-To stimulate the conversion of glucose into glycogen
-To stimulate the conversion of glucose to fatty acids or lipids
-To inhibit the secretion of glucagon.
The effects of glucagon are the following:
-To stimulate the conversion of glycogen into glucose.
-To stimulate the conversion of fatty, protein to glucose
-To prevent body cells to use glucose,
-To stimulate the secretion of other hormones which raise blood glucose level such as adrenalin.
-To reduce the rate of respiration,
-To reduce the secretion of insulin,
Diabetes mellitus
This is a condition in which the pancreas fails to produce adequate or no insulin. This may be due to
hereditary reasons or disease affecting the islets of Langerhans. In this case it is referred to as type I
diabetes.
There is another type of diabetes known as type II where a person suffers diabetes due to lack of
exercise or obesity. A person with diabetes mellitus has an abnormally high level of glucose in his or
her blood (hyperglycemia). In some cases, the concentration of glucose is too low. This condition is
referred to as hypoglycaemia.
Symptoms of diabetes mellitus are:
 Passing urine frequently
 Constantly feeling thirsty
 Dehydration
 Loss of weight
 Poor resistance to infections
Unit 11: RESPONSE AND COORDINATION IN PLANTS

Key Unit Competence: To be able to explain response to light and gravity by plants and understand
the importance of tropisms in plants.
11.1 Introduction
Living organisms are able to respond both internal and external stimuli.
Stimulus(plural = stimuli): any change in the environmental conditions which can bring about a
change in the activity of an organism.e.g. Light, chemical change, sound, …
Co-ordination: process by which living organism give the correct time to a particular stimulus.
11.2 Tropisms
A tropism is a movement of part of a plant in response to, and directed by, an external stimulus. The
movement is always a growth movement.
Tropic responses are described as positive or negative depending on whether growth is towards or
away from the stimulus respectively.
Table: Plant responses and their stimuli
Tropisms Stimuli
Phototropism Light
Hydrotropism Water
Geotropism/ Gravity
(gravitotropism)
Thigmotropism Touch
Aerotropism Air
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a) Phototropism
Phototropism is the growth and response to a light stimulus. Phototropism is most often observed in
plants, but can also occur in other organisms such as fungi.
The cells on the plant that are farthest from the light have a chemical called auxin that reacts when
phototropism occurs. This causes the plant to have elongated cells on the farthest side from the light.
Growth towards a light source is a positive phototropism, while growth away from light is called
negative phototropism.
b) Gravitropism (or Geotropism)

Gravitropism is a turning or growth movement by a plant or fungus in response to gravity. Charles
Darwin was one of the first to scientifically document that roots show positive gravitropism and stems
show negative gravitropism. That is, roots grow in the direction of gravitational pull (i.e., downward)
and stems grow in the opposite direction (i.e., upwards).
c) Chemotropism
Chemotropism is growth of organisms (or parts of organism) such as bacteria and plants, navigated by
chemical stimulus from outside of the organism. The response by the plant is termed ‘positive’ if the
growth is towards the stimulus or ‘negative’ if the growth is away from the stimulus.
An example of chemotropic movement can be seen during the growth of the pollen tube, where growth
is always towards the ovules. It can be also written that conversion of flower into fruit is the example
of chemotropism.
d) Thigmotropism
Thigmotropism is a movement in which an organism moves or grows in response to touch or contact
stimuli. The prefix thigmo comes from the Greek for "touch". Usually thigmotropism occurs when
plants grow around a surface, such as a wall, pot, or trellis.
Climbing plants, such as vines, develop tendrils that coil around supporting objects. Touched cells
produce auxin and transport it to untouched cells. Some untouched cells will then elongate faster so
cell growth bends around the object.
11.3 Role of auxins in controlling plant growth
 Auxins are plant growth hormones
 They are produced at shoot tips and root tips
 Auxins influence cell elongation by causing the cell wall to stretch. This increases the length
and thickness of the cell thus increase the tissue involved.
 Auxins are involved in plant responses towards light, gravity and contact
Fig 11.1: Auxins and phototropism

11.4 Nastic movements
Nastic movements are non-directional responses to stimuli (e.g. temperature, humidity, light
irradiance). The rate or frequency of these responses increases as intensity of the stimulus increases.
An example of such a response is the opening and closing of flowers (photonastic response) and the
opening and closing of carnivorous plants (thigmonastic response).
Nastic responses are usually associated with plants.
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Differences between nastic movements and tropic movements.
Nastic movements Tropic movements
 The direction of nastic movements is  the direction of tropic responses
independent of the stimulus' position depends on the direction of the stimulus
 Nastic responses do not involve growth  Tropic responses involve in growth
Unit 12: Response and coordination in animals

Key Unit Competence: To be able to relate structures of nervous and endocrine systems to their
functions
12.1 Need for coordination and response in animals
In Senior One, you learnt that sensitivity is one of the characteristics of living things. It is the ability
of an organism to sense or detect changes in the environment and respond to them.
Living organisms have the ability to detect changes in their internal and external environments. They
respond to these changes appropriately.
This characteristic is of great survival value to the organisms. The structures involved in detecting the
changes may be located far away from the ones that respond. Therefore, there is need for
communication pathways within the body to link the structures involved in detecting changes with the
structures that respond to the changes.
Co-ordination is the process whereby a living organism gives the correct response at the correct time
to a particular stimulus. This allows the organism to adapt, to change and increase their chance of
survival. In animals, coordination is performed by the nervous system and the endocrine system as
you will learn in this unit.
Animals are able to perceive changes in their external and internal environment. They detect these
changes through special cells and organs called receptors. The process of detection or perceiving the
changes is known as reception. They then respond appropriately to enhance their survival.
Muscles and glands that bring about responses are referred to as effectors. The receptors and effectors
are linked together by a coordinating system composed of the nervous system and the endocrine
system. The endocrine system is made up of ductless glands which release hormones.
12.2 Components of the human nervous system
The nervous system is a system of specialised cells known as nerve cells which are linked to each
other and to different sensory cells and effectors in the body. The nervous system is composed of the
following:
 The central nervous system (CNS) which is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system - which is made up of the peripheral nerves.
A) The Central nervous system
The central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal cord is an extension
of the brain.
A-1 The brain
The brain is made of two halves known as hemispheres. These are the right hemisphere and the left
hemisphere. The two hemispheres are interconnected by a group of nerves called corpus callosum.
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The right hemisphere controls activities of the left side of the body while the left hemisphere controls
activities of the right side of the body.
The outermost part of the brain is called the grey matter. Beneath the grey matter is an inner larger
part known as the white matter.
The brain is covered by three membranes known as meninges. The outer membrane is tough and
delicate and is known as the dura matter.
The brain is protected by three main structures.
(i) The skull (cranium) - which protects it externally.
(ii) The meninges – these are membranes which protect it internally.
(iii) Cerebral–spinal fluid - this is a shock absorber and it also provides nourishment to the
brain.
The brain is composed of three regions, namely:
The fore brain (Cerebrum and olfactory lobes)
The mid brain (Hypothalamus, optic lobes, thalamus and pituitary gland
The hind brain (Cerebellum and Medulla oblongata)
The brain functions to:
 Receive impulses from sensory organs and send them to the respective organs for proper
functioning of the body (relay centre).
 Make decisions based on inherited characteristics or past experiences so as to modify
behaviour.
 Help the muscular body balance.
 Coordinate the vital body processes like regulation of body temperature, breathing and
heartbeat.
Fig: Diagram of the human brain

Cerebrum
Cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain. It makes up about twothird of the brain mass.
The cerebrum therefore has the following functions:
 It is the thinking centre.
 It is involved in imagination and creativity.
 It is the memory centre.
 It is the intelligence centre.
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 It is responsible for personality or character.
 It is responsible for emotions such as joy and sorrow.
 It is involved in voluntary control of body movements such as walking, dancing and jumping.
 It receives and interprets impulses from the sense receptors. This means that the cerebrum is
responsible for sight, hearing, taste, smell and speech.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is found below the rear part of the cerebrum. Like the cerebrum, it is divided into two
hemispheres; left and right. The cerebellum is smaller in size than the cerebrum. It also has folds on its
outer layer that increase surface area and hence a higher number of neurones.
The functions of the cerebellum are as follows:
 Coordination of body movements.
 Maintaining body balance and posture.
 Ensuring dexterity in fine movements like using hands and fingers to carry out skilful tasks
such as playing a guitar, sewing and typing.
Medulla oblongata
The medulla oblongata is located beneath the cerebellum. It is connected to the spinal cord.
The function of the medulla oblongata is to control involuntary responses such as:
• Breathing
• Blood circulation
• Heartbeat, digestion and swallowing.
Other parts of the brain include:
• Pons - Works together with medulla oblongata to bring about involuntary activities.
• Thalamus – Relays sensory information to other parts of the brain.
• Hypothalamus – Controls secretion of hormones by pituitary glands and so it is involved in
homeostatic processes. It also control hunger, thirst and sleep.
• Corpus callosum –Composed of axons that connect the left and right hemispheres.
• Pituitary gland -This is an endocrine gland responsible for the production of many hormones that
control other endocrine glands. It is also known as the master gland.
A-2 the spinal cord

As we have mentioned, the spinal cord is an extension of the brain. It extends from the base of the
brain as shown in the Fig below.
It is located in the spinal column (back bone).It goes from the bottom of the skull up to the height of
the second lumbar vertebra.
It is a cylinder of nervous tissues running from the base of the brain down the back. A transverse
section of the spinal cord shows:
-H-shaped central area of grey matter surrounding a central canal which contains cerebro- spinal
fluid around the grey matter is an outer layer of white matter.
-At each side, are spinal nerves, these divide close to the spinal cord to from two branches called the
dorsal root and the ventral root. Sensory neurons enter the dorsal root and have their cell body in a
swelling, the dorsal root ganglion while motor neurons leave the spinal cord via the ventral root.
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Fig: Diagram of transverse section in spinal cord
Role of the spinal cord
-It provides a means of communication between the spinal nerves and the brain. , so it is thus a
conductive organ.
-It acts as a coordinating center for simple spinal reflexes such as the knee- jerk response and
autonomic reflexes such as contraction of the bladder.
20The peripheral nervous system
The peripheral nervous system can be divided into the voluntary system which is under voluntary
control from the brain, and the autonomic nerves system which operates automatically (involuntary).
a) The voluntary (Somatic)Nervous System
It includes the nerves which enter or leave the central nervous system.
Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers (dendrite or axon) enclosed in connective tissues and protected by
special sheath cell.
The Autonomic Nervous System
Is the part of the peripheral nervous system which controls activities inside the body that are
normally involuntary such as heart rate, peristalsis, sweating, digestion, respiration.
It is not involved with the skeletal muscles.
Nerves fibres of the autonomic nervous system run from the central nervous system to the various
internal organs such as the heart, lungs, intestines and glands.
There are two divisions of the autonomic nervous system; the sympathetic nervous system and
parasympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous have opposite effects .In fact, the sympathetic nervous
system has mainly excitatory effect on the body while the parasympathetic nervous system has a
mainly calming influence.
The nervous system carries out the following functions:
• It perceives the changes around us through our senses.
• It controls and coordinates all the activities of the muscles in response to the changes outside.
• It also maintains the internal environment of the body by coordinating the functions of the various
internal organs and the involuntary muscles.
It stores the previous experiences as memory that helps us to think and analyse our reactions.
• It conducts messages between different parts of the body.
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12.3 Structure and functions of neurons
The nervous system is made of specialised cells known as nerve cells. The nerve cells are also referred
to as neurones. The neurons relay an electrical signal called a nerve impulse.
A neuron is a highly specialized cell for creating and transmitting the nerve information or nerve
impulse. It enables a living organism to sense and to respond to a stimulus.
a) Structure of a neuron.
A neuron consists of two main part: the cellular body and the neuronal extensions or the nerve
fibres.
The cellular body contains, the nucleus, the cytoplasm which is densely packed by organelles, and
neuronal extensions or cytoplasmic formations that rise from the cellular body. The neuronal
extensions are: the dendrite and axon.
Dendrites,they are a lot per neuron, their number varies according to the type of neurons. They are
thin, short, irregularly laid and they end in many ramifications.
Function: Dendrites convey the nerve impulse towards the cellular body
Axon, there exists only one per neuron. It is a long and large neuronal extension. It ends in irregular
and ramified arborization.
Function: Axon carries the impulse away from the cellular body.
Remark: For certain neurons, the axon is not naked, it may contain two covering membranes; - the
myelin sheath made of myelin that is rich in lipids. It is intermittent and it undergoes strangulations
called the Ranvier’s strangulation or Ranvier’s nodes. It serves as protective element of axon or as an
insulator.
-Schwann’s sheath; it is made up of very small special cells, the neuralgic cells or Schwann’s cells.
Those cells ensure the nutrition of the nerve fibres.
Note: neurons or fibres containing myelin are said to be myelinated and neurons or fibres without
myelin are said to be unmyelinated.
Fig: Structure of a motor neuron.

c) Types of neurons
According to their function, the classification in this case is based on the direction in which the nerve
impulses are transmitted. There are:
a) Sensory neuron: it conducts a nerve impulse from the receptors (sense organs) to the central
nervous system, (brain or spinal cord). So, it enables someone to sense, reason why it is called sensory
neuron.
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b) Motor neuron: it transmits impulse from the central nervous system to an effector (i.e. muscle or
gland). It enables actions, reason why it is called motor neuron.
c)Intermediary or relay neuron:
it is located between sensory neuron and motor neuron. It receives impulses from the sensory neuron
or from other organs and conducts it to a motor neuron or other neurons.
Fig : Diagram showing types of neuron
Synapses
A synapse is a specific functional point that links one neuron to another or it is a means by which a
nervous impulse is passed from one neuron to another.
Fig: Simplified diagram showing those types of neurons in a nervous pathway

12.4 Reflex arcs and reflex actions
A reflex action can be defined as a rapid and automatic response to a stimulus. It usually has a
survival value.
Reflex arc is described as the path taken by a nerve impulse in a reflex action. The route that is
followed by impulses during a reflex action is called reflex arc. A reflex action moves in the following
direction:
1. A receptor is stimulated and an impulse travels along a sensory nerve fiber to the spinal cord.
2. The impulse is picked up by an intermediate neuron within the CNS.
3. The intermediate nerve fiber transmits the impulse to a motor nerve fiber which is connected to
an effector.
4. The effectors which could be muscles or glands respond to the stimuli appropriately.
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Spinal reflex, this is a reflex action which involves the spinal cord. It usually occurs in actions which
occur below the head such as knee jerk and peristalsis.
Cranial reflex; this is a reflex action which occurs in the region of a head and it involves the brain, for
example salivation and blinking.
Characteristics of reflex actions
 They occur rapidly.
 They occur spontaneously and take a short time.
 They are coordinated either by brain or spinal cord.
 They are not learned but inborn.
There are two types of reflex actions: Simple reflex action and conditioned reflex action.
(a) Simple reflex action
Have you experienced any of the following?
(i) Touching a hot object, you quickly withdraw your hand. This prevents burning of the hand.
(ii) Sudden blinking when someone throws an object towards your eyes. This prevents the eye from
possible physical injury.
(iii) Salivation at the sight of food. This prepares the individual for softening and lubrication of food to
make it easy to swallow.
(iv) Sneezing when dust gets into your nose. This helps in releasing and expelling the dust that may
contain infectious bacteria.
(v)Constriction of the pupil of the eye in response to light intensity. This prevents excessive entry of
light into the eye which can damage cells. in the retina of the eye.
(vi) Secretion of tears when an onion is peeled near you. The tears wash away the irritating chemicals
that can damage the eye.
All the above are examples of simple reflex action: a given stimulus always produces the natural or
expected reflex response.
During a simple reflex action, an impulse passes through a certain pathway from the receptor to the
effector. This pathway usually involves the three neurons; the sensory neuron, the intermediate
neuronand the motor neuron.
 The stimulus is detected by receptor cells which forms an impulse and transmits it to the
sensory neuron.
 The sensory neuron then transmits the impulse to the intermediate neurons in the central
nervous system.
 The intermediate neurons then transmit the impulse to the motor neurons.
 The motor neurones then transmit the impulse to the organ which brings about a response to the
stimuli.
 This pathway of stimuli that is responsible for bringing about a reflex action is called a reflex
arc as illustrated below.
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Fig: reflex arc diagra
b) Conditioned reflex action
A conditioned reflex action can be defined as an automatic rapid action in response to a stimulus
which is substituted for the normal or natural stimulus. This action is also referred to as learnt
response. It involves response to unrealistic stimulus. For this to be possible, the individual must be
exposed to the new stimulus repeatedly over a period of time. This is the process of learning or
conditioning.
Other examples of conditioned reflex action include:
• Cycling
• Walking
• Swimming
• Driving
• Training of animals in various skills.
12.5 Sense organs
Sense organs are organs containing a group of receptor cells which give information about our
external and internal environment and enable an organism to sense.
Each type of sense organ is responsible for capturing a particular kind of stimulus.
A stimulus (plural =stimuli) is everything of the external or internal environment of the body which
can be captured by a sense organ for examples: Vibration of the running air, cold, heat, light,
pressure, chemical, voice…
Note: The sense organ captures a stimulus and transforms it in a nervous message, sensory impulse.
It sends it to a central nervous system for interpreting. The central nervous system gives rise to a
sensation; touch, pain, vision, hearing, or taste.
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Types of sense organs
In general, these are five sense organs including:
-The eye, the sense organ of sight,
-The ear; the sense organ of hearing,
-The tongue; the sense organ of taste,
-The nose; the sense organ of smell,
-The skin; the sense organ of touch.
1. The eye
It is a sense organ containing photoreceptors i.e. the receptors which are sensitive to light. It enables
someone to see.
The eye is spherical like a ball; the eyeball. It lies in a cavity of the skull called the socket.
Accessory parts:
Eyelids, muscular folds of the skin which cover and protect the eye from light.
They have along their edges, stiff hairs called eyelashes which trap dust and foreign objects (insects)
preventing them from entering inside the eye. They can be closed or open,(blinking).
Regular blinking serves to distribute fluid over the surface of the eye and prevent the drying up the
eye. Blinking can be involuntary or voluntary.
*The conjunctiva: thin and transparent skin which lines the inside of eyelids and covers the eye
*Tear glands or lachrymal gland: located under the top of the eyelid.
They secret a liquid substance the tear fluid which moistens the surface of the conjunctiva
-Wash away dust and other particles.
-Destroy Bacteria because the presence of lysozyme an enzyme with antibiotic action
-The eye muscles, they attach the eye to the socket and allow it to move in different direction \
(up,down, left right)
-The eyebrows: are hairs above the eye which protects against sweat and water from the face to enter
the eye.
Fig: Accessory parts of the human eye

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b) Internal structure
Fig: internal structure of the human eye
The eyeball is making up of three membranes.
-The sclerotic coat: it is the membrane which forms the white of the eye. It is a protective membrane
made up of very tough connective tissue. In front of the eye, the sclerotic is modified and forms the
cornea (transparent cornea).
-The choroid: middle membrane which is pigmented and contains numerous capillaries. It is the
nutritive layer of the eye, in front of the eye, it forms the iris.
The retina: it is the inner membrane cells which are sensitive to light, the photoreceptor cells. There
are two types of receptors, the cones and the rods.
The rods are very sensitive to movement and give black and white vision. They are stimulated by
light of low intensity and are important for seeing in dim light.
The cones give colour vision and are sensitive to high light intensity. Fibres form the cones and the
rods join up to form the optic nerve which leads to the brain.
Note: The photoreceptors are parked together at a place called fovea or yellow spot than elsewhere.
The retina enables the formation of the image of the object.
In the eyeball is a cavity which is divided into two chambers by the lens or crystalline, a larger back
chamber is filled with jelly-like fluid called vitreous humor and a small front chamber which is filled
by a watery fluid called aqueous humor. These fluids maintain the shape of the eye and help to
bend the light so that it is focused on the retina.
-The lens: it is a convex and elastic structure which: -refracts or (bends) light into the retina, bringing
image into fine focus in the retina.
-Accommodation: change in the shape and curvature that enable object close and distant to be seen
clearly. In fact, the lens can stretch into a slim shape and it can bulge into a fat shape according to
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the distance where are objects, so it enable the eye to adapt to a remote vision and a close vision; it
swells up as long as the object is close and flattens when the object is distant.
Fig: Accommodation
Note: The pupil

controls the amount
of light reaching the
retina. When the
light is dim, the pupil
is pulled open wide
i.e. it dilates and
when it is dilated
more light can get
into the eye and so,
someone can see
even in relatively
low light.
When the light is

bright, the pupils
constricts, (it
becomes very small)
,this reduces the
amount of light that
goes into the eye ,so
the photoreceptor
cannot be damaged by too much bright light.
The change in size of the pupil in response to light is reflex action known as a pupil reflex.
Fig: Diagram showing the aspect of the pupil at dim and bright light.
2oThe Ear
The ear is a sense organ, which sensitive to vibration of the air, to sound, to gravity, to movement, and
position of the head. It gives rise to auditory sensation or hearing and it is also concerned with the
balance and position of the body.
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Fig: The diagram showing the human ear in transverse section.
Structure
The mammalian ear is divided into three regions.
. *The outer ear is a tube opening on the side of the head and heading inward to the eardrum.
It contains: The pinna: an extension of skin which traps the vibrations (sound waves) concentrates
them and then directs them into the auditing canals.
-The auditory canal or ear canal: is canal which directs the vibrations into the ear. It is covered by a
membrane containing cerumen glands and hairs. Cerumen and hairs prevent foreign things to enter
the ear.
-The tympanic membrane or eardrum: is a very thin membrane which closes the ear canal.It
receives sound wave from the canal and vibrates in contact with them.
*The middle ear: is a cavity filled with air cut off from the outer ear by the eardrum and from the
inner ear by the oval and round window.
It contains three small bones, ossicles, the hammer (or malleus), anvil (or incus) and stirrup or
stapes) according to their shape. Those ossicles traverse the middle ear and are held in place by
ligaments and muscles.
The ossicles amplify the movement of the eardrum and then magnify the sound before transmitting it
to the oval window.
Middle ear is connected to the pharynx by the Eustachian tube. It is a hole which permits the entrance
of the air in the middle ear and makes the air pressure to be equal on both sides of the eardrum.
*The inner ear: it consists of a complex system of canals and cavities within the skull bone which
contain a fluid called perilymph. Within the canals are membranous sacs filled with endolymph and
sensory cells, auditory receptors and balance receptors.
The auditory receptors are found in the cochlea while the balance receptors are found in the utricle
and saccule.
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The cochlea converts the sound waves to nerve impulse (transduction). For balance main of balance
organs consists of utricule, saccule and semi-circular canal. They contain balance receptor, cells with
hair-like extensions.
The extensions of receptors (auditory and balance) join to form the auditory nerve which leads to the
brain.
30The Tongue.
The tongue is a sense organ very sensitive to savor (taste) and gives rise to taste or gustative sensation.
Four tastes are distinguishable; they are:
*sweet e.g.: taste of sucrose
*bitter e.g.: tastes of quinine.
*sour (acid) e.g. taste of lemon fruit.
*salty: e.g.: taste of salt
Structure:
The tongue consists of muscle which enable it to move. It is coved by a mucous membrane. At the
upper surface of this membrane, are numerous bulges called papillae which give it a rough structure.
Papillae responsible of taste contain taste buds in which are found the sensory cells to taste, the taste
receptor cells. They have cilia at the surface of the tongue and they are excited by food particles
dissolved in the saliva.
Fig: Diagram showing the taste area of the tongue
Note: The tongue is also important;
-in the formation of the speech because it helps to form word sounds.
-in chewing, it holds food against the teeth.
-in swallowing because it moves the food back into the pharynx and then into the esophagus.
4)The nose
It is a sense organ sensitive to smell and it gives rise to smell sensation or odors. No classification of
smells or explanation of how they were distinguishing has yet been made.
Structure:
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The nose contains two nasalcavities open outside by two nostrils. Those cavities are covered by a thin
mucous membrane, the nasal epithelium whose surface is kept moist by a fluid, nasal mucus produced
by mucus –secreting cells.
This mucus is very important in smelling because it dissolves gaseous particles from odorant objects
and lubricates the nasal cavity membrane.
The nasal epithelium contains many cells and the cells sensitive to smell, the smell receptor cells or
olfactory cells. They respond to chemicals in the air.
The olfactory cells are located at the tip of the nasal cavity at a place known as the olfactory zone on
yellow pot.
Neuronal extensions of olfactory cells join to from the olfactory nerve which leads to the brain.
Fig : Section in nose showing the olfactory region
5) The Skin (seen Unit 10)

Tableau: Summary about sense organs
Sense Organ Functioning

Excitement Reception Transmission Transformation
Sight Eye Light Retina Optic nerve vision
Hearing Ear Sound waves Hair cells in Auditory nerve listening

the Cochlea
Taste Tongue Flavour Taste buds Gustatory nerve gustation
Smell Nose odours Olfactory Olfactory nerve Olfaction

cells
Touch Skin Contact, heat... Sensory cells Sensory nerve Tact, pain,
12.4 Endocrine glands

Introduction:
Endocrinology is one of the branches of biology which studies, the endocrine gland.
It studies their secreted products too; the hormones.
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-A gland is a tissue or an organ that elaborates products and pours it outside.
12.4.1 Types of glands
According to the place where the product is secreted one distinguishes two types of glands.
1. The exocrine glands:
They release the secretion out of the surface of the organism or in canal inside the body but which
communicates with the outside of the body such as the gut, respiratory cavities …. They have a
specific tube, the excretory duct to carry the secretion outside, so they are called open gland too.
Some examples of exocrine glands
Gland Position Secreted products

Sweat gland skin Sweat
Salivary gland mouth Saliva
Mammary gland Chest Milk (breast milk)
Cerumen gland Auditory canal Cerumen
Gastric gland Stomach Gastric juice
Intestinal gland Belly Intestinal juice
Liver Belly Bile
Sebaceous skin sebum
12.6 Endocrine glands:

They pour the secretion product directly into the blood stream or in the lymph; the secretion product is
the hormone. They have no ducts, reason why they are called closed glands too.
Mixed glands: are glands which are both endocrine and exocrine i.e. they produce hormones which
are released in the blood stream and other secretion products released outside or in a canal inside the
body, they have an endocrine secretion and exocrine secretion.
Some examples:
 Pancreas: as exocrine gland, it produces pancreatic juice which is poured in the small
intestine and as endocrine gland, it produces insulin and glucagon which are poured directly in
the blood stream to regulate the blood glucose level.
 Testicles: their exocrine secretion is the sperm cells and the endocrine secretion is
testosterone, the male sexual hormone.
 Ovaries: their exocrine secretion is the egg cell or ovum and the endocrine secretion are
estrogen and progesterone two female sexual hormones.
 The small intestine; it produces a hormone, secretinand intestinal juice.
 The stomach: produces a hormone, gastrin and gastric juice.
°Position of endocrine glands in the human body
The endocrine glands are found in certain partsof theboy. in human, the main endocrine glands are:
 Hypophysis (pituitary gland), located in the encephalon,
 Thyroid gland, located in the neck.
 Parathyroid, located in the neck too
 Suprarenal, located above each kidney,
 Pancreas, located in the belly,
 Testicles, located in the scrotum
 Ovaries, located in the belly.
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Fig: Diagram showing the situation of the main endocrine glands
12.4 .2 Hormones
A hormone is a chemical substance which intervenes to coordinate processes in the body. It acts as
messenger a chemical messenger because it stimulates the functioning of same organs or the starting
of same biological phenomenon.
Characteristics
-It has its effects at site different from the site where it is made.
-It is effective in low concentration; it acts in a weak dose.
-It is conveyed with the blood stream all over the body,
-It is specific for a particular organ or particular biological phenomenon.
- It affects only certain organs called the target –organ. Each target-organ contains receptor to pick up
the hormone in the blood, it fits precisely into receptor of target –organ like a key in a lock.
-It is denatured after acting, it doesn’t remain permanently in the blood but it changes by the liver into
inactive compound which is excreted by the kidney.
-Its action can be for a short duration or a long one.
Summary of the major hormone, their gland, their target organs and their function
Glands Hormones Target-organ Function
1.Hypothalamus Releasing hormone Pituitary glands Control of anterior
Pituitary hormone
2.Pituitary glands Oxytocin Mammary gland Ejection of milk in lactiferous
uterus ducts,
Contraction of uterus
during birth
Antidiuretic Nephron ( renal Reducing of urine
hormone tube) secretion because it stimulate the
(ADH) or absorption of water through
vasopressin renal tube during urine
formation
Somatotrophic Whole organs Growth especially of bones and
hormone body mainly limbs.
(STH )or growth bones skeletal
hormone (GH) muscle
Prolactin Mammary gland Milk production and secretion
Thyroid stimulating Thyroid gland -synthesis and secretion of
hormone (TSH) thyroid hormone,
-growth of thyroid gland.
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Follicle stimulating Gonads; Spermatogenesis in male and
hormone (FSH) testicles and oogenesis in female, growth of
ovaries ovarian follicle in female
ovulation
→gonadotrophic hormone.
Luteinizing Gonads Testosterone secretion in male,
hormone(LH) secretion of estrogens and
progesterone in female;
ovulation and maintenance of
corpus lutein.
→gonadotrophic hormone.
3.Thyroid Thyroxin Whole body Growth and development
regulation
of basal metabolic rate
4.Parathyroid Parathormone Bones, kidney , Increases blood Ca++ level and
digestive tract decreases blood phosphate level
5.Adrenal glands Noradrenaline or Muscle , arteries Raising of blood pressure,

norepinephrine ,liver, heart constriction of small arteries
Aldosterone or Kidney tube or Raising of blood pressure , Na +
mineralocorticoids nephron retention in kidney
Cortisol or Whole body Influence metabolism of carbo

glucocorticoids hydrates , protein, adaptation to
stress , allergy affect
6.Pancreas Insulin Whole body Decrease blood glucose level ,
mainly muscle increase uptake and utilization
liver by cells
Glucagon Liver ,adipose Increase blood glucose level ,
tissue break down of glycogen to
glucose in the liver
7.Stomach Gastrin Gastric gland Secretion of gastric juice
8.Small intestine Secretin pancreas Secretion of pancreatic juice

duodenum
9.Ovary Estrogens Whole body -Development of female
( estradiol) mainly secondary sex characteristics
reproductive (development of breast , softy
organs voice, hair …)
-Repair and development of
uterine endometrium after
period .
Ovary Progesterone uterus Gestation , inhibition of
ovulation
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10.testicle Testosterone Genital organs , Development of male secondary
bones sex characteristics (hair voice,
development of genital
Organ ,ejaculation
11.Placenta Corpus luteus Maintenance of corpus luteum of
Chorionic pregnancy
gonadotrophin -Stimulate mammary growth
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TOPIC AREA III: REPRODUCTION
Unit 13: Asexual and sexual reproduction
Key Unit Competence: To be able to differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction, giving
advantages and disadvantages of each.
13.1 Introduction
The reproduction is a process through which existing organisms (parents) produce new organisms
called offspring or descendants similar to them.
Role or importance of the reproduction
It is for increasing the number of individual and for perpetuating a given species or to ensure
continuity of the group.
Types of reproduction
There are two made of reproduction, the asexual and sexual reproduction.
a) Asexual reproduction
It is a reproduction which doesn’t involved sexual cells or gametes. One single parent is enough to
ensure reproduction. It can be natural or artificial. The new individual is from a part of the latter
individual.
Sexual reproduction
It is a reproduction by which the gametes are involved, a female gamete and a male gamete. The new
individual is from the development of a zygote, cell obtained by the fusion of male and female gametes.
Type of Advantages Disadvantages
reproduction
Asexual  It increases genetic stability among  No genetic variation
individuals  Less resistance to disease
 It is faster and produce many Reduced adaptation
individuals  Overcrowding hence
 Only one parent is sufficient competition
 Maintenance of undesirable
characters
Sexual  Increase genetic variation  It is slower and more complex
 Increase of vigor/resistance to  Production of very few
diseases individuals
 Less competition among individuals  Loss of desired
 Parental care to offspring for traits/characters in the hybrids
animals
 Increased adaptability
12.2 Plant asexual reproduction

Plants are able to produce other new plants from some of its parts (such as root, stem,leaves…)
without producing flowers.
In this case, it is the asexual reproduction which is also referred to as vegetative reproduction
because it involves parts of the vegetation. There are various modes of asexual reproduction in plant;
some cases are:
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a) Cutting taking: a new plant grows from a portion or a fragment of stem, root or leaf.
The small branch is separated from the stem of the main plant and put in moist soil. The underground
part develops adventitious root while auxiliary bud develops to produce a new plant.
Example of plants which are propagated using stem cutting are; sugar cane, cassava plant, sweet potato
etc….
Note: some plants can develop from the leaves even from the root .The leaves have buds which grow
into new individual plant. For example of the Bryophyllum.
Fig: Diagram showing cutting

b) Layering: The new plant is from a creeping horizontally growing stem that grows along the
surface of the ground called stolon. The branch is bent down until it touches the ground. The
part in contact with the soil grows root. Then the branch is cut off from the main plant and
develops into new plant.
Example: Sweet potato
Fig : Diagram /layering

c) Grafting: a graft is implanted in a rooted plant, the stock. The two parts unite and the graft develops
and produces a new plant. The reproduction by grafting is totally artificial.
Fig:Diagram/Grafting.
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d). The sporulation: the plant reproduce by means of the spore, a spherical cell. Under
favorable conditions the spore germinates and grows into a new plant. It occurs in
Pteridophytes (e.g. Fern), in Bryophytes (e.g. Moss) and in Fungi Examples in mushroom:
Agaricus
Fig : Diagram /sporulation.

Note: The asexual reproduction in plant can be artificial or natural. It is artificial when it is carried out
by intervention of human being or people. It is natural, when it happens itself without the intervention
of people.
12.4 Animals asexual reproduction.
a) Budding: a bud which looks like a budge or excrescence from an older organism develops
into new organism and separates from the parent’s body. In fact, in budding, an offspring
develops on the body of the parent organism and become, cut off, as a new individual.
Sometimes, they can remain attached to the parent organism and from a colony. The
budding is performed by certain species of animal like Hydra.
c) Fragmentation: an organism physically breaks into two or more parts. Each part grows and
develops the missed organs and becomes a complete organism. It is performed by certain
animals; for example, planarians, starfish…
Fig:Diagram/ Fragmentation
d) Binary fission: the animal cell divides into two equal portions and each one become a new
individual. Example: Amoeba.
Fig:Diagram /Binary fission
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Unit 14: Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
Key Unit Competence: To be able to explain how sexual reproduction occurs in flowering plants
14.1 Introduction
Flowering plants are plants which reproduce by means of flowers which after fertilization give fruits
containing seed. Some examples of those plants are: Garden pea, Bean plant, Cassava plan, Banana
plant, Orange plant, Lemon plant…
14.2 Structure of a flower.
The bracts: Is small leaf-like structure situated of the base the flower.
The sepals: external modified leaves which usually are green. They enclose and protect flowers when
it is still in bud. Their set constitutes the Calyx. They can be fused together (gamosepals) or free
(dialysepals).
The petals: pieces which more colors and are usually large. They can be fused (gamopetals) of free
(dialypetals). Their collection is called corolla.
Note: Calyx and corolla form the floral envelop or perianth. It is the protective part of the flower.
The stamens: are the male reproductive organs of the flower. Each consists of a filament which
carries at its top the anther. At maturity, the anther produces a yellow powder called the pollen grains
whichproduce the male gamete of a plant. The collection of stamens forms the androecium.
The carpels:are the female reproductive organs of a flower. Each carpel consists of the ovary, the
style and stigma.
The ovary is the swollen, hollow base of the carpel. It contains one or more that form the female
gamete. The stigma is the end part which receives the pollen grain from the same or different flowers.
The collection of carpels is the gynoecium.
After fertilization the ovary becomes fruits and ovules become seed. When carpels are fused
together, they form pistil.
Note: The flower is connected to the stem (or branch) by the peduncle or stalk or pedicel and
contains a widened part at the base where are inserted the floral pieces. This part is called floral
receptacle.
According to the presence or absence of the reproductive organs, we distinguish:
Unisexual flower: contains only one type of reproductive organs. When it contains carpel only, it is
unisexual female and when it contains stamen only, is unisexual male. e.g. pawpaw.
Bisexual flower contains the two types of reproductive organs i.e. both stamen and carpel are present.
This flower is also called hermaphrodite. Example: green pea, bean, …
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Fig: Diagram showing a longitudinal section of simple flower.
14.3 Pollination
Pollination is a transfer of pollen grains from the anther (stamens) of one flower to the stigma (carpel)
of another flower of the same species.
Types of pollinations.
Self –pollination or direct –pollination:the pollen seeds from the anthers of a flower are transported on
the stigma of the same flower.
e.g. Garden or green pea, groundnut
Cross pollination or indirect pollination; pollen grains from the anther of a plant are transported on the
stigma of the flower of another plant of the same species.
e.g. Pawpaw, maize plant.
Pollinating agents or pollinators
Pollen grains cannot move themselves, so several agents intervene for carrying them from stamen to
the carpel. There are:
1. The gravity: the force of gravity allows pollen to leave from anthers to the stigma. For this
to take place; the anthers are usually higher than the stigma.
2. The wind: the transport of the pollen is done by the moving air.
-Adaptations or features of wind pollinated flowers.
 Anther and stigma are exposed i.e. out so that they are easily reached by the wind.
 Large anthers that produce large amount of pollen seeds.
 too small petals,
 Pollen grains reduced in size and weight, and they are produced in large quantity in
the form of powder.
 They have air ballonet’s that facilitate their scattering.
 Petals are reduced or absent.
 Sticky and large stigma that traps the pollen seeds.
3. Insects: the transfer of pollen is done by insects which come to visit flowers. Those insects
visit flower to search for nectar or pollen for eating or making honey. e.g.: Bee, Butterfly,
* Some adaptations or features of Insect pollinated flowersfor attracting insects:
 Large petals with sparkling colours or brightly colored.
 Presence of nectarines producing nectar, sugary liquid produced at the base of petals.
 Scented flower. they produce good smell in order to attract insects, small anthers, large pollen
grain and sticky, …
Note: Insects transport pollen grains in their hairs and they drop them down onto the stigma of the
flowers.
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4. Birds: the transfer of pollen seeds is done by bird’s lover plants. Birds are attracted by the
nectar that is used to feed on.
5. Human being: the transfer of pollen grain is done by man; this process is called
Human beings intervene in the pollination faming process of some plants and particularly in the case
of research center. e.g. Mendel with green pea.
6. Water: the transfer of pollen is done by the water (of the raining or river….). Pollen grains
are taken by water flows (water current) to flowers located even at long distance. It occurs
in aquatic plant or terrestrial plant.
14.4 Formation and structure of the pollen grains
Pollen grains are formed in anther inside the pollen sac. Each pollen sac contains a pollen mother cell.
This undergoes meiosis and produces four small cells called microspores. Eachmicrosporedivides once
by mitosis (without division of cytoplasm) and becomes a pollen grain.
Structure of a pollen grain
A pollen seed is a microscopic cell covered by double membrane, the inner, intine and the outer exine.
Inside the membrane is a cytoplasm in which are two nuclei, the generative nucleus which divides later
to produce male sex cell (sperm) and the vegetative nucleus which produces thepollen tube.
Fig: Diagram showing the Formation and structure of the pollen grains
14. 5 Structure of the ovule and formation of the embryo sac.
The ovule structure
Ovule is a structure which after fertilization becomes seed. An ovule is attached to the ovary wall by a
short stalk, called funicle and the point of attachment is called placenta.
An ovule consists of an ovoid mass of cells called the nucellus and it is covered by one or two even
three sheaths called integument. At one end of the ovule, the integument leaves a small hole called the
micropyle. Through which the pollen tube may later enters.
Inside the nucellus and nearest the micropyle is the embryo sac. In which is found the female sex cell.
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Fig: Diagram of an ovule,
Structure of a mature embryo sac
Embryo sac is a set of seven haploid cells. In the centre, the primary endosperm cell with two nuclei;
polar nuclei, at the micropyle end, three cells, one of the three is the egg cell orovum whereas the
remaining are synergid which are non- functional eggs. At the opposite end of the micropyle are three
antipodal cells, they perform no part in the events.
Note: protogyny and protandry.

Sometimes anthers and ovule mature at different times. If the anthers mature first, this is described as
protandry and if the stigmas mature first; this is protogyny.
14.6 Fertilization
Once a pollen grain has landed on the stigma of compatibles species, pollen grain absorbs water and
swells, then it germinates i.e. it produces a pollen tube which grows rapidly down the style to the
ovary. During this growth of the pollen tube, the generative nucleus of the pollen grain divided by
mitosis and produces 2 male gametes, sperm. Then, the pollen tube penetrates the embryosac, its tip
bursts releasing the male gametes into it. The first sperm fuses with the egg cell forming adiploid
zygote and the second sperm fuses with polar nuclei of the primary endosperm cell forming a
triploid zygote. The diploid zygote will develop into the embryo and the triploid zygote will develop
into the endosperm, food-storage tissues within the seed.
Note: the fusion of the egg with one sperm and the fusion of the polar nuclei of the primary endosperm
cell with the second sperm is often called double fertilization, a process unique to flowering plants.
The other five cells of the embryo sac degenerate soon after fertilization.
After fertilization: the ovule becomes seed, the ovary becomes fruits, the sepals, petals stigma, and
stamen harden and fall down, the peduncle becomes the tail of the fruit.
14.7 Fruit
The fruit develops from the ovary after fertilization. Fruits protect seeds and aid in their dispersal and
often delay their sprouting.
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Structure of a fruit
Fig: Parts of a fruit

The fruit has three main layers:
 Epicarp: it protects the fruit against the environmental chocs (outermost layer).
 Mesocarp: is a fleshy layer of the fruit (medium layer).
 Endocarp: is the innermost layer of the fruit that protects the seed.
All of these (epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp) form the pericarp.
Types of fruits
The twomain types of fruits depending on which part of the flower it forms from, there are:
True fruits: This is the one that develops from the ovary of the flower only. Eg: beans, tomatoes,
avocado, oranges…
False fruits: This is the one that develops from the ovary and some other parts of the flower, for
example the receptacle and inflorescence. Eg: apple, strawberry, pineapple…
Fruits are divided into three main groups
Simple fruits: these are fruits formed from one flower where the ovary contain one carpel
(monocarpous) or from several fused carpels (syncarpous). Examples of simple fruits are oranges,
tomatoes, beans…
Aggregate fruits: the fruit in this category are formed from one flower where the ovary is formed
from several free carpels (apocarpous). The fruits are aggregates (collection) of many of the simple
fruits. Eg: the apple which is a type of a false fruit.
Multiple fruits: these are fruits formed from many flowers or inflorescence. Here the ovaries and
other parts of the flower fuse after fertilization to form a fruit. This is seen in false fruit. Eg: pineapple.
14.8 The seed
A seed is a plant embryo surrounded by a protective coat called the seed coat. The structure of seeds
differs among the major groups of seed plants (spermatophyte) which includes monocots, dicots and
gymnosperms.
a) Dicot’s seeds (Eg: bean seed)
The main parts are:
 The radicle (embryonic root); part which develops into the primary root.
 The hypocotyl which develops into the base of the stem.
 The epicotyl which develops into the stem.
 The plumule (embryonic leaves which will develop into the first leaves.
 Micropyle: this is a small hole which allows air and water to enter into the seed during
germination.
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 Testa: it is the hard outer covering of the fruit. It protects the inner delicate parts. It is also
called the seed coat.
 Endosperm: stores food for the embryo in monocotyledonous seeds.
 Cotyledon: absorbs food from the endosperm and supplies it to the embryo during
germination.
 Hilum: forms the concave edge of the seed which is a scar that marks where the seed was
attached to the ovary wall.
Fig: Bean seed

The role of the seed to the plant
 The seed provides the protection to the embryo.
 The seed contains the food reserves (albumen for feeding the embryo).
 The seed ensures the life expectation of the future plant. This means that it allows the plant to
resist against the weathering (hard environmental conditions).
 The seed propagates the plant species.
14.9Fruit and seed dispersal
A fruit initially protects the seed but it also aids in seed dispersal. Dispersal is the scattering of fruits
and seeds away from the parent plant.
In some plants, the fruit containing the seeds is dispersed while in other plants it is only the seeds that
are dispersed.
Dispersal of seeds is important for the following reasons:
 It reduces competition for light, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and water.
 Among the seedlings and within the parental plants, it reduces or prevents overcrowding of
seedlings.
 It enables the plant to colonize or get established in new habitats.
 It increases chances of survival of plant species.
 It prevents and reduces spread of diseases from the parental plant to the seedlings.
Agents of seed dispersal

The dispersal of seeds and fruits is aided by certain agents: agents of dispersal include mammals, birds,
insects, wind, explosive mechanisms (self-dispersal) and water. Fruits are modified in many ways to
help in dispersal of seeds.
14.10 Seed germination
Germination is the beginning of the development of the embryo into a new plant.
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In all seeds, germination begins after moisture has been absorbed by the radical emerging through the
seed coat. Further development varies partly depending on whether food reserves are stored in an
endosperm or cotyledons.
Types of germination
 Germination in which the cotyledons remain below ground is called hypogeal.
Most monocotyledons are hypogeal.
 Germination in which the cotyledons are carried into the air is called epigeal.
 Most dicotyledons are epigeal.
Conditions necessary for germination
Seeds will germinate if certain conditions are satisfied. The most important of these are a supply of
water, a suitable temperature and a supply of oxygen.
i) Water
Water is important because it activates the embryo’s metabolic system. Once metabolism has begun,
the seed must continue to receive water or it will die.
Dry seeds contain only 10 % to 20 % of water and as long as they are kept dry, they will not
germinate. If one is placed in water, it quickly increases in weight because water is absorbed through
the micropyle.
ii) Temperature
Before seeds will germinate, a certain minimum temperature is necessary. This varies from species to
species, but it is generally higher for tropical than temperate plants.
Many seeds germinate best at temperatures between 25ºC and 30ºC.
iii) Oxygen
At germination, a plant is growing and developing rapidly. It normally needs oxygen for respiration so
that the energy may be released for this work.
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Unit 15: Reproduction in humans
Key Unit Competence: To be able to describe the process of sexual reproduction in humans.
15.1 Introduction
The reproduction is a process through which existing organisms (parents) produce new organisms
called offspring or descendants similar to them.
The role or importance of the reproduction: It is for increasing the number of individual and for
perpetuating a given species or to ensure continuity of the group.
The male and the female reproductive systems have different functional structures.
15.2 Male Reproductive System
The main functions of the male reproductive system are: sexual intercourse, reproduction and
urination.
Table : The main parts of the male reproductive system and their respective functions
Parts structure functions
1. Testes (or testicles) are two ,situated in a sack of testes are the male gonads
the skin called scrotal sac or that are sites where sperm is
scrotum made and the male sex
hormone (testosterone)is
produced.
2. scrotum. A sac-like pouch located helps regulate temperature
behind the penis that holds for sperm production.
each testes.
3. Epididymis the structure that forms a Sperm are stored there for as
mass over the back and upper long as six weeks while they
part of each testis. ripen to maturity
4. Cowper's Gland two small pea-sized glands They secrete a clear, sticky
located beneath the prostate fluid that helps to neutralizes
gland on both sides of the the acidity of any remaining
base of the penis. urine and the mucus
lubricates the urethra
5. Vas Deferens (or sperm Is a straight tube of about 40 carries sperm from the
duct) cm long. epididymis to the urethra
6. Seminal Vesicles two small glands secrete a fluid that nourishes

and enables the sperm to
move
7. Prostate Gland Is a gland which surround the secretes an alkaline fluid that
urethra beneath the bladder. neutralize the acidity of the
vagina and makes the
sperms more active.
8. Urethra is a tube inside the penis carries the sperm from the
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which carries the sperm from sperm duct to outside through
the sperm duct to outside the penis as well as urine
through the penis as well as from the bladder.
urine from the bladder?
9.Penis it consists of specials sexual intercourse,
connective tissues with reproduction, and urination.
numerous small blood vessels
in it, and is covered by elastic
skin, the prepuce or foreskin.
The tip of the penis is an
expended, sensitive region
called the glans.
Fig : Male reproductive system

Note:
The sperm orspermatozoa: is a microscopic cell produced by the male's testicles which can fertilize
the female's ovum.
It consists of three parts, the head the middle piece and the tail.
 The head contains; - the nucleus with 23 chromosomes (in human),
 The acrosome that contains enzymes to digest the egg membrane and allow its penetration
under the egg during fertilization.
 The middle piece: contains many mitochondria filament to provide energy.
 The tail or flagellum: it is used for moving (swimming).
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Fig: Diagram of human sperm
Semen: a combination of fluid that is produced in the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and Cowper's
gland. This fluid nourishes and helps sperm move through the urethra.
Erection: when the man is sexually excited, the connective tissue fills with blood causing the penis to
erect i.e. to become long and hard. This event is erection.
Ejaculation: the passage of sperm from the penis, a result of a series of muscular contractions.
15.3 Female reproductive system
The main functions of the female reproductive organs are for intercourse, reproduction, urination,
pregnancy and childbirth.
a) Internal structures
Table:The human reproductive parts and their respective functions
Part structure Function
1. Ovaries: They are two oval small Store and release the ova or
structure (about 3cm long and female egg cell.
1-1.5 cm), thick held in
position near the base of the Produce female sex hormones
abdominal cavity by Oestrogen and Progesterone.
ligaments..
2.Fallopian tubes or Two tubes attached on either The oviducts carry egg cells
Oviducts. side of the uterus. toward the uterus and sperm
cells toward the egg cell.
Fertilization takes place in the

upper third of the oviduct
3. Uterus A hollow, muscular organ - It breaks off every month,
the arterioles burst and
The uterus is lined with release drops of blood, the
endometrium (a blood lining periods or menstruation
- It is a place where the
zygote develops and becomes
a fetus.
- Protect and nourish a fetus
At the time of childbirth. it
contracts in order to push out
the baby.
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4. Cervix The neck or opening of the It stays tightly closed during
uterus. pregnancy, but thins and
opens for the delivery of the
baby.
5. Vagina A muscular tube connected to - Organ of sexual intercourse
the uterus at the cervix and
opening to the exterior at the - It enables childbirth, in fact
vulva. through it, passes the baby at
the time of childbirth.
It is about 8-10 cm long
whose walls contain elastic
tissues.
6. Urethra is a relatively simple tubular conducting urine from the
structure, its opening is bladder to the outside of the
situated between the clitoris body.
and vagina.
Fig: Internal structures of the female reproductive parts

b) External female genital organs
The external genital organs include the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, Bartholin glands, and
clitoris. The area containing these organs is called the vulva. The vulva is a primary sexual
characteristic; it enables to know if a baby who is born is a boy or a girl.
Fig 39 (c): External Female Genital Organs

The external genital organs have three main functions:
 Enabling sperm to enter the body
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 Protecting the internal genital organs from infectious organisms
 Providing sexual pleasure
The mons pubis: is a rounded mound of fatty tissue that covers the pubic bone. During puberty, it
becomes covered with hair. The mons pubis contains oil-secreting (sebaceous) glands that release
substances that are involved in sexual attraction (pheromones).
The labia majora (literally, large lips) are relatively large, fleshy folds of tissue that enclose and
protect the other external genital organs. They are comparable to the scrotum in males. The labia
majora contain sweat and sebaceous glands, which produce lubricating secretions. During puberty, hair
appears on the labia majora.
The labia minora (literally, small lips) can be very small. The labia minora lie just inside the labia
majora and surround the openings to the vagina and urethra. more sensitive to stimulation.
The Clitoris: A small, pea shaped bump at the front of the labia. It contains a small amount of erectile
tissue. It increases sexual pleasure.
The Bartholin glands: They secrete mucus to lubricate the vagina.
Note:
The egg or ovum: is female reproductive cell, is the biggest cells in the female body. (about the size
of a grain of sand.). It has a spherical shape and unable to move.
The female baby is born with all the ova she will ever have (about 200,000 in each ovary).
About 400-500 ova mature and are released over a lifetime.
Fig: Structure of the egg or ovum

The ovum is adapted to its function of being fertilised by the sperm and development of the zygote
through:
 The egg cell is much bigger than the sperm.
 It has a chemical layer around the outside to stop more sperm getting in.
 It also contains one set of cytoplasm to survive on for the couple of hours it takes the egg cell
to reach the womb and form the embryo
15.4 The menstrual cycle
In the human female, a mature egg develops and is released from one of the ovaries every month. The
average length of the menstrual cycle is 28 days. It can however be as short as 24 days or as long as
35 days. This cyclic event is known as the menstrual cycle.
Before the release of the egg, the uterine lining becomes thick and is supplied with dense network of
capillaries in preparation for implantation.
If fertilization does not occur, the new uterus lining and the egg are discharged from the uterus. This is
called menstruation or period and usually lasts for about five days.
The first day of the menstrual period can be regarded as day 1 of the menstrual cycle. During this time,
the endometrium is shed from the uterus through the cervix and vagina together with some blood.
After this event, four other main events occur:
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• The healing and repair of the uterine lining (endometrium) after menstruation.
• Ovulation - the release of ovum from Graafian follicle.
• Thickening of the uterine lining in preparation for implantation.
• Menstruation occurs again if fertilisation does not occur.
Role of hormones in the menstrual cycle
Hormones Roles
Follicle-Stimulating Released by the pituitary glands, it stimulates the development of follicles
Hormone (FSH). in the ovary. One of these follicles develops into a Graafian follicle
Oestrogen Helps repair the lining of the uterus,
Luteinising Stimulates ovulation(14th day of the cycle). and the formation of the
Hormone (LH). corpus luteum.
Progesterone. thickening of the endometrium during which it is enriched with blood

capillaries. This is in preparation for an embryo to be implanted
Fig: Diagram showing the change in ovary during the menstrual cycle
For ovulation to take place, a mature Graafian follicle moves to the surface of the ovary. It forms a
bulge on the ovary surface. It then ruptures and releases the ovum. It also causes the Graafian follicle
to change into a yellow body or a corpus luteum.
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Fig: Menstruation cycle for 28 days
15.5 Fertilization and implantation
Fig: The process of fertilisation

Copulation is the act of having sexual intercourse. It’s mostly done when an erect penis is inserted
into the vagina. Ejaculation is the time when semen (sperms and fluids) is delivered into the vagina at
the end near the opening of the cervix.
The sperms move towards the fallopian tubes (oviduct). Both tubes receive the sperms. Most of
fertilization takes place in the oviduct.
When sperms reach the egg, they are attracted toward it. Only one sperm enters the egg leaving the tail
behind. Usually a sperm from a different species cannot enter the egg that’s why usually two different
species cannot produce younger ones.
After fertilization the egg becomes a zygote in the oviduct. Since gametes are haploid (n), the zygote
is diploid(2n). The cells of the zygote divide mitotically to form a ball of cells called blastocyst which
is pushed forward towards the uterus.
When it reaches the uterus, implantation occurs. Implantation is a very important stage of pregnancy.
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Fig: The process of fertilisation and implantation
Following implantation, one part of the blastocyst develops into the embryo while the outer layer of
cells of the blastocyst develops into three membranes; chorion, allantois and amnion.
Chorion lines the endometrium and provides a surface for the exchange of substances between mother
and foetus.
Amnion is a sac that develops from the embryo and envelops it. It becomes filled with the amniotic
fluid which plays the following roles:
• Gives the foetus physical support allowing it to float and move around.
• Acts as a shock absorber protecting the foetus from mechanical injury.
• Lubricates the foetus and prevents it from dehydrating.
The allantois contributes to the formation of umbilical blood vessels which transport substances to and
fromthe abdomen of the foetus.
The placenta forms the link between the circulatory systems of the foetus and the mother. It is made
up of both foetal and maternal tissues and has a rich network of blood capillaries.
The foetus is linked to the placenta by the umbilical cord which contains the umbilical artery and vein.
The placenta has membranes which separate the blood vessels of the mother and the foetus.
These membranes are thin and hence allow dissolved oxygen, glucose and amino acids and salts in the
mother’s blood to diffuse into the blood vessel of the placenta.
They also allow waste products such as carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes to pass from the
placental blood vessels into the blood vessel of the mother.
Blood from the embryo is directed to the placenta capillaries through umbilical arteries. It has a high
level of carbon dioxide and wastes like urea. Blood rich in nutrients and oxygen which have diffused
into the placenta from the mothers’ circulatory system are directed to the foetus through the umbilical
vein.
• The membranes are selective in that they allow only certain materials to pass into the foetal
circulation. In this way, they prevent some harmful materials from reaching the foetus.
Another role of the placenta is to produce hormones such as progesterone and oestrogen which assist
in maintaining the pregnancy and preparing the body for birth.
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15.6 Pregnancy, ante-natal care and birth
Pregnancy is also known as gestation period. This is the period within which the embryo grows and
develops into a human being.
In human beings, during foetal development the following structural changes occur.
The nervous system: the brain and spinal cord start to develop at the third week.
The rhythmic contractions of the heart begin by end of week four as well as the circulation of
blood. By around the seventh week, the brain starts to function.
Other vital organs like the kidneys, stomach and the liver become functional at eight weeks and the
embryo is now referred to as a foetus.
The genitals start to develop by the fourth month.
From the sixth month, the foetus increases rapidly in size and by the 40thweek the baby is fully formed
and can be born.
Ante-natal care
Antenatal care is the care received from healthcare professionals during pregnancy.
A pregnant woman should take extra care of her health for her benefit and that of the baby.
Her diet should have plenty of iron which is needed for the formation of haemoglobin. This is
necessary to supply oxygen and nutrients to the placenta. She should also take plenty of calcium to be
used in the formation of bones by the foetus.
Pregnant mothers should seek immediate medical attention in case of sickness. They should avoid
getting some diseases like Rubella which could lead to disabilities and deafness of the foetus. Malaria
is also a threat to pregnant women. They should sleep under treated mosquito nets always. Pregnant
mothers are advised to attend ante-natal clinics without fail.
Pregnant women should also avoid certain types of clothes, for example, wearing high heeled shoes
which could cause her to fall and tight clothes. They should do light exercises like walking.
Pregnant women should avoid taking alcohol and smoking cigarettes since they harm the foetus and
can result to giving birth to underweight babies or a miscarriage.
Fig: the relationship between the mother, fetus, membranes and placenta
Birth
Before a baby is born, it normally turns upside down with its head just above the cervix. The process
of birth begins with labor. The amnion ruptures and the amniotic fluid passes out through the vagina.
The uterine contractions become stronger and more frequent and the cervix dilates to let the baby’s
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head pass through. The uterine contractions and the contractions of the abdomen together expel the
baby out through the cervix and vagina.
The umbilical cord is then tied in two places and cut. After some time the placenta, which is also called
the “after-birth”, is also expelled from the uterus.
Fig: Stages of Labor (childbirth)
Advantages of breastfeeding
To the baby To the mother
 Breast milk is the ideal food for a baby.  Breast milk is always at the right
It is nutritionally balanced, with the temperature, is available immediately, is
perfect amount of proteins, easy for the baby to digest, contains all
carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and iron to the nutrients the baby needs and is free.
help the baby to grow.  Reduction in the risk of the mother
 Boosting immunity: The baby receives contracting early breast or ovarian
the mother's antibodies to help it fight cancer.
infection.  A speedier return to the pre-pregnancy
 Less likelihood that the baby suffers figure for the mother as breastfeeding
constipation and diarrhoea. helps the womb to contract and also
 More protection against diseases like burns up calories.
gastroenteritis, childhood diabetes,
allergies like eczema and chest and ear
infections.
15.7 Some exceptional cases of reproduction

.Multiple birth:
It is a birth of several offspring at a same time. In human it is a rare event and it justifies the presence
of twins. There are 2 types of twins.
-Non identical twins: arise when 2 or more eggs are fertilized by 2 or more sperms (dizygotic twins).
Each one has his placenta, amniotic sac and umbilical cord. They may have the same sex or different
sex.
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Fig: Non identical twin
-Identical twins: arise from one egg fertilized by one sperm (monozygotic twin). The fertilized egg
starts to split into two parts and each part develops into a separate embryo. They have a single
placenta for both and enclosed in one amniotic sac. They have the same sex, both girl and boy.
Fig: identical twins

Note: Siamese twins: are identical twins that have incompletely separated during embryonic
development and as consequence share some organs; they are fused at some parts of the body they are
called conjoined twins too.
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TOPIC AREA IV: HEALTH AND DISEASES
Unit 16: Social factors that affect good health
Key Unit Competence: To be able to describe the social factors that affect good health and apply
knowledge gained in familiar and unfamiliar contexts.
16.1 Introduction
Social factors are things and experiences that influence our personality, attitudes and lifestyle. Social
factors include things like religion, family, physical status, economic status, education, location, life
partners, children and political systems.
Good health on the other hand is a state in which a person's body is able to function normally both
mentally and physically. Good health is therefore important in living a full and satisfying life.
16.2 Factors that affect good health
Good health is not lack of sickness. When you are healthy, you enjoy many benefits. Good health
enables one to express full potential within the environment in which one is living. Good health is
influenced by several factors such as good housing, safe food, clean water and hygiene. All these
factors together contribute to a healthy individual.
Good housing
Good housing is a house with proper ventilation; has enough room, has no health hazards and is warm.
Therefore it improves life quality by reducing stress, mental problems and diseases. The community
benefits by having a healthy population that is progressing.
Housing is an important social determinant of health. Poor housing is associated with health conditions
such as respiratory diseases, injuries and poor mental health. Poor housing has an ineffective waste
disposal system and is a fertile breeding ground for vectors such as rats, mites and insects.
All Meat sold in butcheries must be inspected and stamped to verify to the public that the meat is safe
for human consumption.
Food inspection
Food meant for human consumption must be safe to prevent contraction of diseases. All food must be
inspected to ensure that it is clean, fresh and free from microorganisms that cause diseases.
Everyone should ensure that the food they consume is healthy and germ free. When buying food,
check for expiry date. Also food should be properly stored to prevent attracting harmful
microorganisms.
Clean water
Water is a necessity to all organisms. Human beings need clean and safe water daily. Water is used for
drinking, cooking and cleaning. Apart from personal hygiene, water is very useful in food production.
Clean water is water that is free from contamination and is safe enough for drinking and cooking.
Contamination of water could lead to transmission of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
Lack of access to clean and safe water contributes to increase in levels of poverty in a society. Many
people walk long distances to search for water, wasting time for other economic activities.
To ensure that the quality of drinking water is maintained, contamination of water at the source should
be prevented; both on the surface and the ground.
Hygiene
Hygiene involves all practices that bring about safe and healthy environment that prevents diseases
through cleanliness. Hygiene is involved with the preservation of health. Whatever is considered
hygienic however may vary between different cultures, gender and other groups. Keeping the
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environment and our body clean is an effective form of hygiene that keeps away disease causing
microorganisms. Another form of hygiene is washing one’s hands that help to prevent the spread of
infectious diseases.
16.2 Public health services

Public health services are measures that help to: prevent disease, prolong life and promote health of a
community. It aims to protect and improve the health and well-being of all populations.
Public health service officers are involved in:
• Assessing health of communities and populations at risk.
• Designing policies.
• Ensuring that people have access to appropriate and affordable care for health and disease prevention
services.
To improve public health services, campaigns are done on: provision of safe drinking water, safe
healthy foods, safer working place and vaccination and control of infectious diseases.
Function of public health services
Public health services work to protect citizens from:
(i) Public and environmental health hazards.
(ii) Prevent and reduce chronic diseases and injuries.
(iii) Respond to health emergencies or disease out-breaks like cholera and flu pandemics.
(iv) Promote good health habits within the community.
16.4 Drugs
A drug is any substance which affects the body chemically when taken. Many types of pills are drugs,
as are alcohol, nicotine in tobacco, and caffeine in coffee and cola.
Some drugs such as chloroquine and penicillin have the medicinal use in the treatment of disease.
Other drugs are used as painkillers and for treating sleeplessness.
However, some of the drugs are abused; that is they are not used properly or responsibly.
Most of the drugs now classified as drugs of abuse, such as marijuana, heroin and cocain, were
originally used as medicines. Some people now use them because, for a short time, they can produce a
false sense of well-being.
Drug abuse is a serious problem to the World today. Drugs used improperly can do a great deal of
harm. They can destroy the body and mind. Many governments are therefore very much concerned
about the increasing number of users (people who abuse drugs). They are therefore doing everything
possible to control the production, selling and abuse of these drugs.
A serious problem with some drugs is that people who take them soon find that they cannot stop using
them. They are said to be addicted to (dependent on) the drug. They find it very hard to break this
addiction, even though they may want to give up taking drugs.
Consequences of addiction to drugs
 When an addict stops taking a drug, he experiences pain, dizziness, nervousness and sickness
(withdrawal symptoms) and so longs for more.
 An addict spends a lot of time and money for obtaining the drug and neglects work, health,
family and friends.
 Some addicts are drawn into robbery or prostitution to get money to buy drugs.
The drugs which people abuse are: marijuana, opium, heroin, cocain, alcohol, glue and petrol. A)
Marijuana is the dried and chopped shoots and leaves of the cannabis plant. The main ingredient of
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this drug is a sticky substance called cannabis resin. When marijuana is smoked, eaten or drunk, it is
harmful in the following ways:
 It is a depressant drug (slows down the user’s reactions) and causes unsteadiness.
 It can produce hallucinations (seeing, hearing and generally becoming aware of something that
either is not present or is different from reality).
 It removes the desire to work and better oneself.
 It acts on the nervous system and can damage the brain.
B) Cocaine is a white powder also called coke or snow. An impure form is known as ‘crack’. It is
produced from the coca plant grown in South America. The drug is normally taken by sniffing the
powder. It is dangerous not only because it is very easy to get addicted to, but also because it causes a
great deal of harm to the user.
 It causes stomach pain and loss of weight.
 There is nervousness and difficulty in sleeping.
 Prolonged use results in a loss of concentration, a feeling of insects crawling on the skin and other
hallucinations.
 It is very expensive, and so is often mixed with cheaper chemicals. They may be impure and cause a
great deal of harm.
 Very heavy doses can cause violent behavior or death through breathing difficulties or heart failure.
C) Caffeine is a stimulant found in coffee, tea, cocoa and cola. In small quantities it is virtually
harmless. In large amounts, however, it can cause increased heartbeat and breathing rate, and also
nervousness.
D) Glue and petrol are abused by some people. They sniff glue or breathe petrol fumes and feel like
they have taken a lot of alcohol. Glue and petrol sniffing can damage the brain, liver and kidneys.
Some glue sniffers die from suffocation or heart failure due to sudden shock.
Remember:
 Some drugs are less harmful than others, but none are harmless; all of them can kill in large doses.
 Drugs are very powerful and dangerous and should only be used under guidance from a doctor or
nurse. Drugs should never be taken unnecessarily.
 Never accept illegal drugs (drugs which are not allowed by law to be used). It is easier to refuse
drugs than to stop once addicted.
 Anyone who has problems with drugs and wishes to stop using them can do so by avoiding the
company of other drug users. A strong determination should then be made to stop the habit.
B) Alcohol: Alcoholic drinks, for example, beer, wine and spirits, such as whisky and gin, contain
the drug ethanol, commonly called alcohol. They contain different amounts of alcohol.
The alcohol content of different beer ranges from about 3% to 6%. Wine contains between 10% and
12% alcohol. The alcohol content of spirits ranges between 40% and 50%. Some homemade spirits are
very strong and can be dangerous. They contain a lot of alcohol, sometimes not just ethanol but other
more harmful types of alcohol.
Alcohol is a drug which is very much abused worldwide. People are affected in a number of ways by
alcohol.:
 With a little drink, one may begin to feel happy, but greater amounts can affect the brain.
 People easily lose their self-control and may say or do things that they would not do normally.
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 They may argue, shout or fight.
 They cannot rely on their memory.
 They may judge distances wrongly and see things in a confused manner.
 Their reactions are slowed down.
 When the effect of alcohol wears away, they have what is called a ‘hangover’ (headaches,
tiredness, thirst and sickness).
Some people drink now and again with other people (social drinking) and may not suffer very much
harm from it. There are, however, other people who are heavy drinkers and who may become
alcoholics. They have a serious drinking problem.
The following are some of the signs that indicate alcoholism:
 Frequent desire to drink alcohol.
 Drinking more than in the past.
 Behaving badly after having a drink.
 Not remembering things that happened when drunk.
C) Nicotine is a poisonous, addictive substance found in tobacco. In the smoker’s blood, it causes:
 narrowing of blood vessels (atherosclerosis).
 This may occur in the heart, causing a heart attack, or in the brain, causing a stroke.
 Tobacco smoke also contains carbon monoxide (a poisonous gas) and tar. The carbon
monoxide reduces the amount of oxygen in the smoker’s blood. This affects all tissues,
particularly the heart and the brain.
 It may cause cancer of the lip and throat as well as cancer of the lung which is usually deadly.
 Some diseases of the respiratory tract (for example, bronchitis) can also develop. Associated
with bronchitis is another disease called emphysema. It is a condition in which the air sacs of
the lungs burst due to persistent coughing (smoker’s cough), forming large air spaces. This
causes breathlessness and prevents adequate amounts of oxygen from being absorbed in the
lungs.
 Smoking in pregnant women can cause abortion and premature births. Nicotine in the mother’s
blood may harm the developing baby and cause low birth-weight.
 Smokers have a bad smell on their breath. They may also cough repeatedly and do not eat well.
 Other harmful effects of smoking include poverty and the danger of starting fires.
16.6 Antibiotics
Antibiotics are drugs that combat bacteria by interfering with various cellular functions.
For example, penicillin interferes with cell wall synthesis. Tetracycline interferes with bacterial protein
synthesis. Many antibiotics are derived from chemicals that bacteria and fungi produce. Antibiotics
protect bacteria and fungi from other microscopic invaders.
Antibiotic resistance
When a population of bacteria is exposed to an antibiotic, the bacteria that are most susceptible to the
antibiotic die first. However, a few mutant bacteria that are resistant to the antibiotic may continue to
grow.
A resistant population then grows from these mutant bacteria through reproduction and genetic
recombination. In this way, antibiotics provide a selective advantage to antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
Because antibiotics have been overused, many diseases that were once easy to treat are becoming more
difficult to treat. The mechanisms of antibiotic resistance vary. In some bacteria, cell walls prevent
passage of the antibiotic. Still other bacteria secrete enzymes that destroy or alter the antibiotic, as
penicillin resistant bacteria do.
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Unit 17: Decision-making regarding sexual relationships
Key Unit Competence: To be able to identify potential legal, social and health consequences of sexual
decision-making
17.1 Introduction
We learn about sex and sexuality in many different ways. For instance, we can learn about it from
peers, family members, teachers and friends.
We also get information about sex and sexuality through several outlets such as media, by listening to
radio and watching TV or through other social media.
Some of these messages may be empowering but others may be offending and destructive. We should
therefore be able to make the right sexual decisions at all times.
This topic is about what you should do in order to make proper decisions which will be of help in the
rest of your life.
17.2 Factors hindering practice of safe sex
Safe sex is defined as a sexual activity by people who have taken precautions to protect themselves
against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV and AIDS. Sexual contact that does not
involve the exchange of semen, vaginal fluids or blood between partners is considered to be safe sex.
Safe sex practices reduce the risk of transmitting STIs but do not completely eliminate the risk of
contracting the diseases.
Safe sex is effective in reducing sexually transmitted infections only if both partners agree to it. Unsafe
sex may put you or your partner at risk of STIs such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, HIV and AIDS,
hepatitis B or may result in an unplanned pregnancy.
There are however several challenges that hinder the practice of safe sex including peer pressure,
alcohol and drug abuse, misleading information, sex for financial gain and ignorance.
(a) Peer pressure
This is the influence of a group (usually an age group or social group) on an individual. A person
might feel pressured to do something just because others are doing it (or say they are). Peer pressure
can influence a person to do something that is relatively harmless or something that has more serious
consequences.
Teenagers are at higher risk of peer pressure influence than adults especially during adolescence. Peer
influence is mostly associated with conformity especially to style, appearance, ideologies and values.
Association with a group of friends who engage in risky sexual behavior possess a great challenge to
the practice of safe sex. In addition, the need to feel accepted by the group may compromise the use of
protection if the partner demanded otherwise.
(b) Alcohol and drug abuse
The use of alcohol or drugs affects an individual’s perception, thinking and ability to make the right
choice. When faced with the need to make a decision regarding safe sex by using protection during
intercourse, a person under the influence of alcohol or other substance may make irrational decisions
and engage in unprotected sex.
(c) Misleading information
Misleading information spread amongst the youth about safe sex is misleading. The notion that having
sex without protection is more pleasurable also hinders the practice of safe sex. Other people are
misinformed by individuals who pass the information that use of contraceptives to prevent pregnancies
may also protect against contracting of STIs and HIV and AIDS. This information is very wrong and
misleading and increases transmission of STIs including HIV and AIDS.
In addition some people believe that oral sex is safe. This is a misconception since either of the parties
involved may come in contact with infected body fluids if they have open wounds in the mouth.
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(d) Practice of sex for financial gain
Individuals who engage in prostitution are always faced with the challenge of unprotected sex if the
partner in question demanded so. Since money is more important to them, then the person might
decide to give in and have unprotected sex.
(e) Ignorance
Most people especially teenagers lack the knowledge on ways to practise safe sex. Others who are not
learned may not understand information on posters, radio or television promoting the practice of safe
sex.
17.3 Strategies for dual protection against both unplanned pregnancies and STIs, including HIV
Dual protection refers to the use of methods which will prevent both unwanted pregnancy and STIs
including HIV and AIDS during sexual intercourse.
Contraceptives are effectively used to prevent unwanted pregnancies. The contraceptive methods
include, abstinence, sterilization, Norplant, injection, oral contraceptive pill, IUD, male condom with
spermicide, female condom, diaphragm or cervical cap, vaginal spermicide alone and natural family
planning.
However, to protect against the transmission of HIV and STIs the following methods are effective:
abstinence, non-penetrative sex, long-term mutual monogamy with HIV testing, male condom with
spermicide, male condom, female condom, diaphragm and cervical cap and vaginal spermicide alone.
Dual protection may be achieved through either the use of a barrier method such as a male or female
condom together with another contraceptive method or through the use of the male or female condom
alone.
The male condom is the most common device that is used for dual protection. The female condoms are
effective as well. The male condom covers the penis during sexual activity, hence if used correctly,
this barrier method protects against transmission of STIs and HIV and AIDS as well as reducing the
risk of unwanted pregnancies. The female condom can also offer dual protection against unwanted
pregnancies and transmission of STIs and HIV if used properly.
Contraceptives alone cannot be used for dual protection since they do not offer protection against STIs
including HIV and AIDS and unwanted pregnancies. Contraceptive may however be used as a means
of dual protection if partners enter a monogamous union, get tested to ensure that none of them is
infected with STIs or HIV.
The use of condoms may be effective in preventing transmission of STIs and unwanted pregnancies
but they are not 100% effective. This is due to:
• Sex using a condom may still spread an infection if the condom does not fully cover the infected
area. Some infections such as pubic lice, scabies, the genital wart virus and the herpes virus are
spread by close skin-to-skin contact.
• A condom may break, particularly if it is not used or stored properly.
Safer sex is about having sex when you are ready. This practice is respectful and protected.
Practices for safer sex include:
• Having sex with only one partner, when neither of you has any STIs.
• Going for Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) regularly to get tested for common infections
and having treatment if necessary.
• Be aware that drugs and alcohol may affect your ability to make good decisions. Protect yourself
from having sex that you might regret or were pressured into because you were not thinking
properly.
Male and female condoms can be used with contraceptives to provide more effective dual protection
against STIs including HIV and AIDS and unwanted pregnancies.
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Another means of dual protection is abstaining from sexual intercourse. This is a better method
because it offers complete protection against STIs including HIV and AIDS and unwanted
pregnancies.
Unit 18: HIV and AIDS, stigma, treatment, care and support
Key Unit Competence: To be able to explain the importance and key elements of living positively with
HIV.
18.1 Rights of people living with HIV (PLHIV)
HIV- related discrimination and stigma refers to negative attitude, prejudice and abuse against PLHIV.
They may be shunned by family, peers or the community while some may receive poor treatment in
healthcare facilities and in public. The main cause associated with this stigma and discrimination being
the myths about transmission of HIV. These myths, misinformation or ignorance and fear coupled with
other reasons have caused many people to falsely believe that:
• HIV and AIDS is always associated with death.
• HIV and AIDS is a result of irresponsible behavior and deserves to be punished.
• HIV and AIDS is only transmitted through sexual intercourse, which is a taboo subject in many
cultures.
• One may get infected if they associated with persons with HIV and AIDS.
PLHIV face various challenges associated with stigma and discrimination. They include loss of:
income and livelihood, reputation, marriage and hope.
Rights of PLHIV
 No person living with HIV and AIDS should be discriminated against.
 PLHIV have the right to medical treatment and care from the health facilities.
 No one can be dismissed from work because they are HIV-positive.
 No one should be forced to take a HIV test in any situation, for example, before getting a job.
 Children living with HIV and AIDS should be allowed to attend any school.
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 Pregnant women living with HIV and AIDS have the right to make a choice about their
pregnancy.
 Test results cannot be shown to any other person without the permission of the person who
took the test.
18.2 Sexuality education and programs promoting positive living with HIV and AIDS
Education programs and campaigns are important in order to reduce HIV and AIDS infection rates.
Many organizations run prevention and education programs. These organizations use methods such as:
TV adverts, billboards, pamphlets and radio. The message passed in these campaigns is directed to the
general public.
All members of the community should be informed about HIV and AIDS, although vulnerable groups
should be targeted first. These vulnerable groups are more
likely to contract HIV and AIDS they include:
(a) Sexually active youths.
(b) Sex workers.
(c) Men and women who are already HIV-positive and are spreading it to other people by
engaging in indiscriminate sexual behavior.
(d) Women who are in relationship with partners who are HIV-positive and have do not have the
power to decide on the use of condoms.
Public education programs on sexuality aim at encouraging people to:
• Get tested by visiting voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) centers.
• Protect themselves against the spread of the virus.
• Access treatment and care when infected.
• Treat PLHIV with the dignity they deserve.
Most people who are HIV-positive are not aware of their status and therefore unknowingly spread the
virus during the early stages of infection. Education programsemphasize on everyone to be tested to
prevent the spread of the virus and encourage positive living.
People who are influential in the society such as politicians, religious leaders, traditional leaders and
teachers should be involved in the promotion of campaigns on living positively with HIV and AIDs.
Positive living is a lifestyle adopted by an HIV-infected person in order to live life as fully as possible
while slowing progression to AIDS. Adopting positive living practices improves the quality of life of
PLHIV remarkably. Important aspects of positive living for PLHIV include making positive choices to
care for one’s mental and physical health, having a positive outlook on life and avoiding risky
behaviors.
Positive living involves:

(i) Preventing the spread of HIV. Patients who are on antiretroviral therapy (ART) can transmit HIV
even if treatment has been effective. There is also a possibility of re-infection with a different
strain which can accelerate infection.
(ii) Taking medications as prescribed by the healthcare worker to prevent further infections.
(iii) Working as their energy allows and avoiding stress.
(iv) Maintaining a good nutritional status is essential for improving the quality of health. They should
eat a well-balanced diet consisting of regular meals (even when they do not feel hungry). Meals
should include protein, fat, carbohydrates and vitamins.
(v) Getting regular exercise and medical care.
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18.3: Support groups and mechanisms for PLHIV
The stigma surrounding HIV and AIDS makes life more difficult for PLHIV and their families.
Loneliness, anxiety, stress, confusion, bitterness and depression can make people more vulnerable to
illness if they do not get any kind of support. PLHIV need a lot of emotional, spiritual, psychological,
social, physical and clinical support.
Different people and different institutions can provide some support, but it is important for PLHIV to
come together and support one another. They would know better what their hopes,
joys, anxieties, fears and needs are and they are the ones who should define how best they want to be
understood and treated.
Some of the common needs of PLHIV are:
• Health and medical supplies and skilled medical services.
• Counselling to reduce isolation and promote acceptance.
• Community support groups to provide a safe place where feelings and advice can be shared.
• Spiritual support such as prayer groups and home visits by religious leaders.
• Social acceptance to help them feel welcome by visiting them and treating them like friends.
• Physical care such as bathing, cleaning their homes when they are sick and any other thing they are
not able to do on their own.
• Nutritional help so that families improve their diets using cheap and available foods.
• Safe clean water that has been boiled or treated with chlorine.
• Accurate information about HIV and AIDS.
Support groups can be set up for many different reasons. Here are a few:
• To provide emotional support and coping mechanisms to those people who are undergoing a difficult
time in their lives, and are willing to be part of a support group.
• To provide information for its members so that they can understand the disease and be able to
educate their family members, friends, colleagues, neighbors about the disease.
• To draw strength and share information from other members, experiences.
• To educate people about antiretroviral (ARV) medication and to encourage people to keep taking
their medication.
• To ensure they live a positive and productive life.
• To demystify the disease and promote de-stigmatisation and community acceptance of PLHIV and
their families.
Stigma and discrimination related to HIV and AIDS has been a prevalent problem.
PLHIV experience many faces of stigma and discrimination in a variety of ways in households,
communities, work place, health care settings, media and government places. Stigma seems to be
particularly more common in poor neighborhoods.
Stigma and discrimination create a culture of secrecy, silence, ignorance, blame, shame and
victimization leading to societal rejection, job loss, school expulsion, ostracism and violence, lack of
care and support and loss of property.
This prevents implementation of strategies for effective management of PLHIV, voluntary counselling
and testing (VCT), accessing HIV care including effective use of Antiretroviral (ARV) drugs and the
behavior and perception of the health care they receive.
There is also a perception of what PLHIV feel that the society believes or thinks about them could
directly relate to the various forms of stigma they encounter from the public with which they have
contact with.
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Unit 19: Sexual behaviour and sexual response
Key Unit Competence: To be able to describe common sexual behaviours and how to make
responsible decisions
19.1 Introduction
Any activity that induces sexual arousal is referred to as sexual behavior. This activity can either be
solitary, between two persons or a group of people.
Human sexual behavior is determined by two main things: genetic pre-disposition that determines
inherited sexual response patterns and the degree of influence exerted by the society on an individual
in expressing their sexuality.
Information concerning sexual behavior in most communities especially in Africa is restricted since
much about sex and sexuality is regarded as taboo. There is increasing need to overcome these beliefs
in order to create proper awareness about how to behave in light of the various cases that you will
come across which require appropriate sexual response.
In Senior Two, you learnt about sexual response, In this unit, you are going to learn about how to make
responsible sexual decisions.
19.1 Common sexual behaviors
Human sexual behavior is classified according to the number of participants in the sexual activity and
the sex of the individuals. Sexual behavior may be: solitary involving sexual stimulation, between a
male and a female, between two males or between two females. Common sexual behaviors include:
(i) Self-masturbation is a solitary behaviour of self-stimulation with the intention of arousal and
orgasm. This kind of sexual behaviour has no risk at all with regard to the transmission of STIs
including HIV and unwanted pregnancies.
The side effects of masturbation are loss of memory and concentration, testicular pain, fatigue, lower
back pain, thinning of hair, and weak erection.
(ii) Sexual activity between a male and a female is mainly vaginal but in rare cases, anal sex involved.
Oral sex may also be incorporated in this form of sexual behavior. One of the negative impacts of
playing sex is unwanted pregnancy and the risk of sexually transmitted infections. Protection
using male or female condoms may be used to prevent unwanted pregnancies and minimize the
risk of transmission of STIs including HIV.
(iii) Sexual activity may also occur between persons of the same sex, thus between males or females.
Sex between males involves anal sex; in females, sex toys may be used. Penetrative anal sex has a
higher risk of spreading sexually transmitted infections than many other types of sexual activities.
This is because the lining of the anus is thin and can easily be damaged. Homosexuality is morally
bad and should be discouraged.
(iv) Group sex is another form of sexual activity although rarely common. This is a high risk sexual
activity since more than two
people are involved and there is very high chance of transmission of STIs including HIV.
(v) Non-penetrative sexual activity is a low risk sexual activity that involves kissing and
touching. It does not need use of protection. HIV may only be transmitted if partners have large
open sores in the mouth.
(vi) Transactional sex activity involves exchanging money, goods or protection for sexual favors.
Unlike prostitution, the benefit or favors is not predetermined but there is motivation to benefit if
sexual favors are given. Transactional sex is more in regions that have higher levels of poverty.
Men and women in transactional sex may have multiple sex partners and this contributes more to
the spread of HIV/AIDS and other STIs.
The risk involved in the different sexual behaviours is different. Teenagers and young adults are at
higher risk than adults.
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19.2 Prevention of unintended pregnancies and HIV and AIDS
It is the responsibility of both sexual partners in preventing unintended pregnancies and HIV. The use
of contraception should not only be the responsibility of the female. Contraceptives can be used by
both to prevent unwanted pregnancies and HIV. Sexual partners involved ought to discuss on the best
method possible and be able to deal with the consequences thereafter. Some of the birth control
measures include:
(a) Abstinence
Abstinence is the self-restraint from sexual activity. Being consistently abstinent is the only sure way
of preventing unintended pregnancy and STIs, including HIV. It is a safe way to prevent pregnancies
with no side effects. Therefore abstinence prevents these risks until when one is older, more informed
and better placed to handle the risks.
(b) Use of contraceptives
Contraceptives are methods or devices used to prevent pregnancy. Barrier methods such as condoms
are a form of contraception that help to protect against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and
pregnancy.
Other contraceptives such as diaphragm, IUD, pills, implants and injections can only prevent
pregnancy.
19.3 Communication skills in consensual and safe sex
Communication is the process of sharing information, thoughts and feelings between people through
speaking, writing or body language. Effective communication on the other hand extends the concept to
require that transmitted content is received and understood by someone in the way it was intended. The
inability of people to communicate effectively, especially teenagers, makes it difficult to maintain
positive relationships. This decreases the ability to engage in safer sex practices.
Most people are aware of the need to get tested and stay safe, but ignore the aspect of consent. It is
safer to first discuss sexual activity before engaging in it.
As teenagers, there is need to know that just because your partner responds to your touch and kisses
does not mean you go ahead and have sex with them. There is need to seek consent by verbal yes to
know that both of you are in agreement of what is to happen next and agree on what to use to stay safe,
that is, prevent unintended pregnancies and transmission of STIs including HIV.
Consent of sex is one of the most important strategies in preventing transmission of STIs including
HIV and unintended pregnancies. Teenagers mostly receive misleading information about sex such as:
• Girls are supposed to be submissive and accepting in their relationships.
• Boys are entitled to sex whenever they want it irrespective of their partner’s decision.
This leads to unhealthy and hostile relationships between teenagers and increase the likelyhood of
transmission of STIs including HIV and unintended pregnancies. It is very important for teenagers to
express their own views and decisions concerning sex very clearly and at the same time pay close
attention to their partner’s needs.
Being able to express one’s opinion freely and seeking consent will not only improve communication
in the relationship but also ensure that neither of the partners engages in sexual activity they are not
comfortable with. It is the responsibility of both sexual partners to prevent unintended pregnancies and
transmission of STIs including HIV.
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TOPIC AREA V: GENETICS AND ITS APPLICATION
Unit 20: Genetics
Key Unit Competence: To be able to explain how genes determine structure and function of
individuals.
20.1 Introduction
a) Definition
Genetics is one of the branches of biology which studies: the transmission or passage of
characteristics from parents to their descendants. In brief, it is a science of heredity or
inheritHeredity is a part in genetics which explains how the inherited characters can be transmitted
from parents to children.
b) Inherited characteristics are those that are controlled by genes and can pass from parents to
their offspring from one generation to another.
Some examples are:
- Skin color: black skin, yellow skin, white skin.
- Body length: short body, tall body.
- Eye color: bleu eye, red eye, green eye.
- Shape of the nose.
- Shape of the eye.
- Number of fingers etc…
c) Genes and Inheritance
1. Allele – a different form of the same gene;
Example: Trait = flower color; Alleles = Purple or White
Dominant Allele = written as an uppercase letter (P)
Recessive Allele = written as a lowercase letter (p)
2. Locus – location of a gene
3. Homozygous – when a homologous pair has the same allele (homo= same)
4. Heterozygous – when a homologous pair has different alleles (hetero = different)
5. Probability – the likelihood of an event happening
6. Punnet tSquare – used to predict the offspring’s traits
20.2 Statistic laws of the transmission of inherited characters
These laws was obtained by crossing (or breeding i.e. hybridization) individuals of same species that
differ by one or several characters.
Pure line or pure-breeds or true-breeding i.e. individuals able to give offspring that resemble the
parents’ generation to generation. They
crossed individuals of pure-line between them to produce new individuals that for the first filial or
first generation or first progeny represented by F1.
Then the individuals of F1 are crossed between them to produce individual of the second
progeny or F2 and these individuals are crossed between them to produce individuals of third
filial or 3rd generation or F3…, and so on.
Note: The analysis of the results of F1, F2 and F3 generations allowed biologists to deduce fundamental
principles of heredity or laws of heredity.
 The first attempt on plants: was done by Gregor MENDEL (1822-1884), later Austrian
Monk. He used the garden pea, of scientific name Pisum sativum because it is a plant that
has external characters easy to recognize and also a plant easy to grow with a short
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generation time, available in many varieties and large number of offspring.
 The external characteristic used to identify an individual is called phenotype.

 The characters that caught Mendel’s’ attention were:
- length of stem (tall or short)
- position of flowers (axial or terminal)
- color of unripe pods (fruit): green or yellow
- form of ripe seeds (round or wrinkled)
- Color of cotyledons….
The first attempt on animal was done by MORGAN Thomas an American biologists on fly of
beer, drosophila melanogaster because it is an insect with a phenotype easy to recognize (form of
eye, color of eye, body color length of wings…) and it is easy to farm.
During their experiments, they crossed individuals using one character; monohybrid, two characters
dihybridism and sometime several characters, polyhybridism.
1. Monohybrid inheritance
It is a crossing between individuals that differ by one single character. One pair of characteristics is
used.
A) Monohybrids with dominance
A character is dominant and another is recessive. A given character is dominant when it is expressed
in individuals of F1 while the recessive character is hidden in individual of F 1; it is not expressed
in individual of F1.
Mendel’s experiment
Once upon a time (1860's), in an Austrian monastery, there lived a monk named Gregor Mendel.
Monks had a lot of time on their hands and Mendel spent his time crossing pea plants.
1. After growing the true-breeding of round peas and wrinkled peas, to prevent self-pollination of
the peas plants, Mendel removed the immature stamens of the plant from round seed and the
immature carpel of the plant from the wrinkled seed. He took the pollen grains of the plant
from the wrinkled seed and transferred it to the carpel of a plant from the round seed: He did an
artificial cross-pollination. After fertilization, the peas produced fruits, the pods or legume in
which are only seeds that are round, no one were wrinkled. He called them seeds of first
filial generation or F1.
2. In second set of experiments, he took seeds of F 1 grew them and allowed the plants from
them to self-pollinate or to cross-pollinate which other plants of F1. He obtained a second
filial generation F2containing round seeds and wrinkled seeds. He was surprised to see the
trait that was lost in F1, the wrinkled trait, reappears in the F2 generation.
3. In third set of experiments, he took plants from the seeds of F 2, allow them to self –pollinate
(as it is usual in the nature) , he obtained a third filial generation containing wrinkled and
round needs too.
Summary of Mendel’s works
P. generation: True breeding round pea x True breeding wrinkled pea.
F1 generation: Round peas only.
F2generation; Round and wrinkled peas mixed.
F3 generation: Round and wrinkled peas mixed too.
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Interpretation
Each inherited characteristics or trait hasits gene which allows it to emerge, it is factor responsible for
characters.
The genes are located in chromosomes. Each one occupies a place called locus (plural loci). During
fertilization, the gametes transmit the genes from parent to offspring. Once in the offspring, the
specific trait programmed in it emerges an all the traits appear to the offspring and so on.
Note: The gene is represented by a letter fromthe name of the characteristics the dominant inusually
representedusing a suitable capital letter and the recessive isrepresented bythe lower-case version of
the same later i.e. the same letter in small character.
So, in this case, the gene of round trait is R and the gene of wrinkled trait is r. To determine a trait
the genes act in pair i.e. in two, each members of the pair is calledalleleone is fromthe male parent and
other from the female parent. The set of alleles form the genotype of i.e. a genetic combination of
alleles that gives rise to a phenotype.
 General representation of a crossing between 2 individuals
P. generation: Pure-line of round pea x pure line of wrinkled pea.
Phenotype: round shape wrinkled shape
Genes: R r
Genotype: RR rr
Gametes: R and R r and r
To represent the random fertilization, one usesthe genetic diagram or Punnett square; it is
atable in which in the first raw are written gametes that can be formed by the male parent and
inthe firstcolumn thegametes that canbe formedby the female parent.In general, in this table are
found the genotypes of the offspring of a given generation.
Genetic diagram of F1 generation
R R
r Rr Rr
r Rr Rr
Results: 100 (%) of Rr or 100 % of round peas.
Ratio: 4/4 of Rr or 100 % of round pea.
Conclusion: - Round characteristic is dominant while wrinkled tract is recessive.
Observation: All offspring of F1 generation are the same:identical according to their phenotype
and genotype, they are from true breeding parents. They are hybrid or heterozygous i.e. Their
genotype contains different alleles.
From this observation, Mendel deduces his first law: law of lineage uniformity i.e. all
descendants of F1 are identical.
F2: F1 X F1
P. generation: round of F1 X round pea of F1 too.
Genotype: Rr Rr
Gametes: R and r R and r
Diagram: Punnet square
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R r
R RR Rr
r Rr rr
Results:
Offspring genotypes: RR; Rr; Rr; rr
Offspring phenotypes: round ; wrinkled
Ratio ¾ ¼
Or 75% 25%
From the above results, Mendel states his second law, the law of segregation or purity law saying
alleles separate during F2 generation and each one expresses its characteristics .
The ratio of progeny phenotype is 3:1. It is the ratio in the case of monohybridism with dominance.
F3 generation: three possible cases
1 case:
th
P.generation: 1th category of round pea x first category of round pea.

Phenotype: round of F2 x round pea of F2
Genotype: RR x RR
Gametes: R and R R and R
Diagram:
R R
R RR RR
R RR RR
Results: 4/4 RR or 4/4 round i.e. 100 percent of round.
Conclusion: the first category of round pea is a pure line i.e. homozygous. Their genotype consists of
same alleles.
2th case: second category of round pea i.e. Rr
P .generation: round pea of F1 X round pea of F1
Phenotype: round pea round pea.
Genotype: Rr Rr
Gametes: R , r R,r
Diagram:
R r
R RR Rr
r Rr rr
Results: ¾ round or 75 percent of round and ¼ wrinkled or 25 percent of wrinkled.
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Conclusion: This category of round pea is hybrid i.e. heterozygous. Their genotype consists of
different alleles.
3th case: wrinkled pea of F2.
P. generation: wrinkled pea of F2 x wrinkled pea of F2
Phenotype: wrinkled wrinkled
Genotype: rr rr
Gametes: r, r r, r
Diagram:
r r
r rr rr
r rr rr
Results: 4/4 of rr or 4/4 of wrinkled.

Conclusion: wrinkled pea of F2 is pure line or homozygous.
Exercises
1. The gene T of a tall pea is dominant over the gene t of dwarf pea. A tall pea was crossed with a
dwarf pea and it was found 12 tall plants and 11 dwarf plants. Make the punnett square.
2. A black mouse mates with a white mouse and all the F1 offspring are black.
a) Draw a Punnett square to show the cross?
b) What result can be obtained when mice of F1 are crossed between them?
c) What does this suggest about hair color in mice?
3. The allele that gives you dimples is dominant over the allele for no dimples. One partner in a
couple has dimples and the other has no dimples. Would you expect their children to have
dimples? Explain your answer
4. The gene for a long nose (N) is dominant over the gene for a short nose (n).
a) What possible genotypes can a long-nosed person have?
b) What possible genotypes can a short-nosed person have?
c) If a pure long-nosed person marries a person who has a short nose, what types of noses
can their children have? Show reasons.
5. In cats, short hair (H) is dominant over long hair (h). Two cats heterozygous for hair length are
crossed. Use a punnet square to help answer these questions.
a) What is the genotype of the heterozygous cat?
b) What are the possible genotypes of the offspring?
c) What are the possible phenotypes of the offspring?
d) What percentage of offspring would be expected to have each of the phenotypes listed
in c?
6. In pigs the gene which produces a white belt around the animal (W) is dominant over the gene for
uniform colour(w). A pig heterozygous for colour is crossed with a pig homozygous for uniform
color. Use a punnet square to help answer these questions.
a) What are the possible genotypes of the offspring?
b) What percentage of offspring would be expected to have each of the genotypes listed in
a?
c) What percentage of offspring would be expected to have uniform color?
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B. Monohybridism with codominance or incomplete dominance.
Some alleles don’t completely dominate others. In fact, some heterozygous genotypes allow both
alleles to partially show by blending together how they are expressed; this is called incomplete
dominance.
Other heterozygous genotypes allow both alleles to be completely expressed at the same time like
spots or stripes; this is called co dominance.
An example:
The crossing between two varieties of plant Antirrhinum major one with white flowers , the other
with red flowers gives at F1 100% of plant with pink flower (rose flower).When plants with pink
flower are self-pollinated, they produce at F2 generation plants with red flowers, white flowers and
pink flowers.
Summary:
Plant with red flower (pure line) x Plant with white flower (pure-line)
Interpretation
P-Generation: Red flower x white flower
Phenotype: Red White
Gene: R W
Genotype: RR WW
Gametes R,R W, W
R R
F1Gener W RW RW ation:
Results: W RW RW 100% of RW or 100% of Pink
F2:F1xF1
P. Generation: Pink of F1 x pink of F1
Phenotype: Pink x Pink
Genotype: RW x RW
Gametes: R, W R,W
Diagram
R R
W RW RW
Results: W RW RW ¼ of RR or ¼ red.
½ of RW or ½ Pink.
¼ of WW or ¼ white.
The ratio of progeny phenotype is : 1 :2 :1 i.e. 25 ,50 ,25.
Note: Class work : Find the ratio of the progeny phenotype when the different categories of plants of
F2 generation self-pollinate? Give conclusion in each case?
117
Exercise
A rooster with grey feathers is mated with a hen of the same phenotype. Among their offspring 15
chicks are grey, 6 are black and 8 are white.
a) What are the genotypes of parents?
b) Give the possible genotypes for the offsprings.
c) What is the simplest explanation for the inheritance of these colors in chickens?
d) What offspring would you expect from the mating of a grey rooster and a black hen?
20.3 HUMAIN INHERITANCE.

Transmission of blood groups.
Human blood types are determined by genes that follow the CODOMINANCE pattern of inheritance.
The blood groups are under control of three genes A, B and O
It is conventionally represented by the symbol I, so I A, IB and IO. The gene A and B are dominant to O,
O is recessive and A and B are codominant. There are six possible genotypes and 4 phenotypes.
There are two dominant alleles (A & B) and one recessive allele (O).
Blood Type Genotype Can donate blood to: Can receive blood from:
(Phenotype)
O ii (OO) A,B,AB and O O

(universal donor)
AB IAIB AB A,B,AB and O

(universal receiver)
A IAIA or IAi AB, A O,A

(IAO)
B IBIB or IBi AB,B O, B

(I O)
B
An individual with a specific antigen on the red blood cell membrane does not possess its
corresponding antibody in the plasma. So a person of blood group A has antibody b, a person of blood
group B has antibody a, person of blood group AB has neither antibody and person of a group O has
both antibodies a and b.
Exercises
1. A wealthy elderly couple dies together in an accident. A man comes forward, claiming that he
is their long lost son and is entitled to their fortune. The couple were of blood types AB and O.
The man has type O blood. Could he be the heir to the fortune? Show why or why not.
2. John has type O blood. He knows his mother had type B blood. He does not know the identity
of his father, however. What possible blood types could his father have had? Show your work.
3. Two newborn babies were accidentally mixed up at the hospital. Determine the parent of
the babies by blood type.
Individual Blood type Genotype Parents Name

Baby 1 A ……………………………………
Baby 2 O ……………………………………
Mrs Brown B
Mr Brown B
Mrs Smith B
Mr Smith AB
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1. Albinism
Albinism is a group of genetic conditions that causes a lack of melanin pigment.
Melanin is the pigment responsible for the color of the skin, hair, and eyes.
Because melanin normally protects the skin from UV (ultraviolet) damage, people with the disorder
are more sensitive to sun exposure and have an increased risk of skin cancer.
Albinos are the organisms that have the disease albinism.

HOW IS THE DISEASE INHERITED?
Being albino is recessive: aa= albino/no pigmentation
Being “normal” is a dominant trait:AA= normal pigmentation
If one parent allows melanin, and the other does not, the offspring will look normal, but will have the
recessive gene of albinism:Aa= normal pigmentation
Exercises
1. Albinism is a hereditary condition in which skin pigments are not formed. Normal skin
pigmentation (P) is dominant over albinism (p).
a) What are the possible genotypes for a person with albinism?
b) What are the possible genotypes for a couple with albinism?
c) If the first child of a married couple with normal phenotypes is an albino, what are the
chances that their second child will also be an albino? Explain your answer.
In man, normal pigmentation is due to a dominant gene, A, albinism to its recessive allele, a. A
normal man marries an albino woman and their first child is albino. What are the genotypes of these
three persons? If they have several other children, what would these children probably be like?
2. Sex determination
In human are two types of sexes:
- somatic sex : the fact of being a boy or a girl (presence of testicles or vulva)
- genetics sex : the fact of being XY = a boy or XX = a girl
 Genetics sex determination
It follows the law of heredity and depends upon the type of sperm that fertilizes the ovum.
In fact: parental generation: Man x Woman
Phenotype: male female
Genotype: XY XX
Gametes: X, Y X, X
Diagram
X Y
X XX XY
X XX XY
Results :
½ XX i.e. 50% girls
½ XY i.e. 50% boys
119
i.e. 50% and 50%, so the sex ratio is: 1:1
So the sex of the offspring in human (and in all mammals) is determined by which sperm it is that
fertilizes the egg. We would expect equal numbers of male and female offspring to be produced. It is
a case of monohybridism with back-cross.
Note: The XY system for male and XX system for female is characteristic of most vertebrates
and many insects (including drosophila) and other invertebrate groups. It is also characteristic of
those flowering plants where the sexes are separate.
In birds, butterflies and moths, the males are XX (homogametic) and the females are XY
(heterogametic).
20.4 Sex-linked conditions
Here the gene of an inherited characteristic is carried on a sex chromosome X or Y
Some examples :
1. Haemophilia: It is a disease in which the blood of the affected person has a
markedly reduced ability to clot, due to a deficiency of one of the blood clotting
factors.
It is caused by a recessive gene (h) carried on the X chromosome. It is a lethal gene because it can
cause mortality to someone who is affected.
Types of genotypes
XHY or XY = Normal male.
XhY = haemophiliac male.
XHXH or XX = normal female.
XHXh = carrier female (she is normal).
XhXh = haemophiliac female.
Exercise: Give the genotype and the phenotype of offspring in the following cases:
a).Normal man xcarrier female ?
b) haemophiliac man x normal female ?
Solution
a) Parents : Normal male x carrier female
Phenotype: Normal male x carrier female
Genotype :XHY x XHXh
Gametes : XH, Y x XH, Xh
Diagram:
XH Y
XH XHXH XHY
Xh XHXh XhY
Results : 25% XHXh of: carrier daughter
25% of XhY : hemophiliac son
25% ofXHY : Normal son
120
25 ofXHXH: normal daughter
b) Parents: phenotype: Hemophiliac male x normal female
Genotype: XhY x XHXH
Gametes: Xh, Y XH, XH
Diagram
Xh Y
XH XHXh XHY
XH XHXh XHY
Result:
50% XHXh: carrier girl,
50%XHY = normal son.
Note: During sex-linked condition, the carriers female transmits the gene to her sons and the
affected male transmits the gene to his daughter.
2. Red-green colorblindness
A form of colorblindness in which red and green are perceived as identical. This is the most common
type of colorblindness. It is inherited in an X-linked recessive manner and affects 6% of males. It is
also known as deutan colorblindness, deuteranopia, and Daltonism.
Note: you can use any small letter to represent the gene of this defect.The gene of red-green color
blindness is not lethal,so the affected woman can survive.
Some genotypes:
XCY – normal man
XcY = color blind (affected ) man.
XCXC = normal woman
XCXc= carrier woman
XcXc= affected woman
20.6 Application of genetics in everyday life

 Genetics can help us to understand why people look the way they do and why some people are
more prone to certain diseases than others.
 Genetics can help health-care professionals to identify certain conditions in babies before they
are born using techniques such as prenatal testing.
 Genetic technologies are also being used to help develop targeted medicines for certain
diseases.
 In addition to its use in health care, genetics has a range of other applications. For example, the
police can use genetic fingerprinting to catch criminals.
 Genetic finger printing was invented and developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of
Leicester in 1984. This technique can identify individuals on the basis of their genetic
information.
121
Unit 21: Gene therapy
Key Unit Competence: To be able to explain the role of genetic engineering in industrial production of
insulin and genetically modified crops.
21.1 Introduction
Gene therapy is the introduction of normal genes into cells in place of missing or defective ones in
order to correct genetic disorders.
Genetic engineering, also known as recombinant DNA technology, means altering the genes in a
living organism to produce a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) with a new genotype. Various
kinds of genetic modification are possible: inserting a foreign gene from one species into another,
forming a transgenic organism; altering an existing gene so that its product is changed; or changing
gene expression so that it is translated more often or not at all.
21.2 Applications of gene technology
Genetically modified foods
Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods grown from plants which have had one or a few of their
genes altered.
Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are called
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO). GM plants have been useful in many ways. Genetic
modification has:
 Made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat).
 Reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).
 Helped to reduce post-harvest losses.
 Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early exhaustion of fertility of
soil).
 Enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice.
Using genetic modification to study, prevent, and cure disease
In medicine, genetic engineering has been used to mass-produce insulin, human growth hormones,
follistim (for treating infertility), antihemophilic factors, vaccines, and many other drugs.
In research, organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes.
122
Topic Area 6: SELECTION AND EVOLUTION
Unit 22: Variation and adaptive features
Key Unit Competence: To be able to explain that variation is caused by both genetic and environmental
factors and adaptive features shown different organisms.
22.1. VARIATIONS
Variation refers to the differences in characteristics between individuals of the same species. Thus it is
basically the tendency for offspring to differ slightly from their parents and from each other. Even
identical twins can usually be distinguished from each other. Variation can be described as being either
discontinuous or continuous.
22.2. Continuous variation
Human height is an example of continuous variation. Height ranges from that of the shortest person in
the world to that of the tallest person. Any height is possible between these values. So it is continuous
variation.
For any species a characteristic that changes gradually over a range of values shows continuous
variation. Examples of such characteristics are:
 Height
 Weight
 Foot length.
22.3. Discontinuous variation
Human blood group is an example of discontinuous variation. There are only 4 types of blood group.
There are no other possibilities and there are no values in between. So this is discontinuous variation.
A characteristic of any species with only a limited number of possible values shows discontinuous
variation. Here are some examples:
 Gender (male or female)
 Blood group (A, B, AB or O)
 Eye color.
22.4 Factors that cause variations
Variations can be caused by environmental factors and by genetic factors (inherited variation).
Characteristics of animal and plant species can be affected by factors such as climate, diet, diseases,
culture and lifestyle.
22.5 Mutation
A mutation is spontaneous genetic change. Mutation is the way new alleles are formed.
22.5. 1 Types of mutation
A mutation may occur in a gene or chromosome. A chromosome mutation may result from damage to
or loss of part of a chromosome during mitosis and meiosis or a gain of an extra chromosome.
If amutation occurs in a gamete, it will affect all the cells of the individual that develops from the
zygote. Thus, the whole organism will be affected. It may result in a genetic disorder, e.g. Haemophilia
If the mutation occurs in a somatic cell, it will affect only those cells produced, by mitosis, from the
affected cell. Mutations in somatic cells may give rise to cancers by promoting uncontrolled cell
division in the affected tissue.
22.6 Mutations in Bacteria
123
Mutations in bacteria often produce resistance to drugs. Bacteria cells reproduce rapidly, perhaps often
as once every 20 minutes. Mutant genes are inherited in the same way like normal genes, so when
surviving mutant bacteria reproduce, all their offspring will be resistant to drugs.
22.6 Adaptive feature
An adaptive feature is an inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its
environment.
Some plant adaptations:
Desert plant ( xerophytes) Water plant ( Hydrophytes)

e.g. cactus plant e.g. water lily plant
 They store water in their stems,  They have leaves that float a top the
 They have no leaves or small seasonal water, exposing them to the sunlight.
leaves (help to reduce water loss),  They have air spaces in their stems to
 They have long root systems spread help hold the plant up in the water.
out wide or go deep into the ground to  Roots and root hairs reduced or absent;
absorb water;
 They are leaves are transformed into
spines to discourage animals from
eating plants for water
Some animal adaptation physical features:
The Camel The Polar bear

Camels are adapted to survive in a hot, dry and sandy Polar bears live in the arctic, spending much
environment of their time on snow and ice
 They have closable nostrils, and long eyelashes,  They have a small surface
which help keep out wind-blown sand area/volume (body size very large)
 Their feet are broad and splay out under helps conserve heat.
pressure, so reducing the tendency to sink into  Ears are small, reduces heat loss.
the sand.  More fur covered the body for
 Thick fur insulates the body against heat gain in insulation.
the intense sunlight.  Heat-exchange arrangement in the
 Physiologically, a camel is able to survive limbs to enable them to walk on snow
without water for 6-7 days. and ice.
 Its stomach has a large water –holding capacity
Unit 23: Natural and artificial selection

Key Unit Competence: To be able to explain natural and artificial selection in relation to evolution
and breeding.
23.1 Natural selection
Evolution can be described as the change in adaptive features of a population over time as a result of
natural selection.
Theories of evolution have been put forward in various forms for hundreds of years. In 1858, Charles
Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a theory of evolution by natural selection, which is still
an acceptable theory today.
The theory of evolution by natural selection is as follow:
 Individuals within a species are slightly different from each other. These differences are called
variations.
124
 If the climate or food supply changes, individuals possessing some of these variations may be
better to survive than others.
 If one of the varieties lives longer than others, it is also likely to leave behind more offspring.
 If the beneficial variations are inherited, the offspring will also survive longer
 The new varieties may gradually replace the older varieties
Note: The new variations are said to have survival value. This is natural selection; the better adapted
varieties are selected by the pressure of the environment (selection pressures)
For natural selection being effective, the variations have to be heritable. Variations that are not
heritable are of no value in natural selection.
For example: Training may give athletes more efficient muscles, but these characteristics will not be
passed on their children.
23.2 Selective breeding
The process of selective breeding involves humans selecting individuals with desirable features. These
individuals are then cross-bed to produce the next generation.
Offspring with the most desirable features are chosen to continue the breeding programme and the
process is repeated over a number of generations.
Most important are the breeding programmes to improve agricultural livestock or crop plant.
For examples:
 Animal-breeders will select cows for their high milk yield and sheep for their wool quality.
 Plant-breeders will select varieties for their high yield and resistance to diseases.
23.3 Compare natural and artificial selection:

Natural selection Artificial selection
 Occurs in groups of living organisms  Is used by humans to produce varieties
through the passing on of genes to the of animals and plants that have an
next generation by the best adapted increased economic importance.
organisms, without human interference.  Is much faster than natural selection.
 The new varieties may gradually  However, removes variation from a
replace the older varieties population, potentially puts a species at
 However, variation within a population risk of extinction.
remains
125
References:
1. D.G MACKEAN and DAVE HAYWARD, 2017, Cambridge IGCSE Biology, third edition /
Hodder education/ UK.
2. D.G MACKEAN, Cambridge GCSE Biology, 2002, third edition/ Hodder education/ UK.
3. S.Nyanza, B.Nkwasibwe, S.Omoding and D.Matavu , 2010, New Biology student ‘s book S1,
S2 and S3./Longhman
4. G.WASSWA, B.MUGARURA, S, NDIWA, 2017, Biology and Health Sciences senior 2
student’s book, first edition/ Longhorn.
5. M. OWAKA, P.KAVITA, 2012,Test it and fix it KCSE Revision Biology, second edition/
Oxford.
6. Rwanda Education Board: Ordinary Level Biology Syllabus(S1-3)/Kigali,2015
7. DIEUDONNE HUNGURIMANA, 2017, Biology for S3 OL/ Petit Seminaire de Nyundo.
8. MANIRAGENA PULCHERIE, 2017, Biology and Health sciences S2.
9. LUBUNGA Fulgence, 2014, Biology Notes Senior 3/ SIHS
10. Godfrey Wasswa , Benson Mugarura &Selah Ndiwa2017, Biology and Health Sciences senior
3 student’s book, first edition/ Longhorn
Electronic references
11. Wikipedia.org
12. http://yourdictionary.com
13. tutorvista.com
14. www.humankinetics.com
15. Google images( Diagrams &figures)
126

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Ecole Sainte Bernadette Kamonyi

BIOLOGY & HEALTH SCIENCES

TEACHER: VALENS NSENGIMANA

1.2 Intraspecific relationships

1.3 Interspecific relationships

Fig 1.1 predation

Fig 1.2 Mutualism (insect &flower), Lichens (algae & Fungi)

UNIT 2: POPULATION SIZE

Fig 2.1 low population density

Fig 2.1 population density

Fig 2.3 Exponential growth curve

A population growth has 4 phases:

fig 2.5: population growth’s phases

Table: Rwanda population

2018 12,501,156 2.40% 507

UNIT 3: NUTRIENT CYCLE

fig 3.1: water cycle

Fig 3.2: carbon cycle

Fig 3.3: Nitrogen cycle

UNIT 4: EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ECOSYSTEMS

Fig 4.1: emissions of toxic gases by factories.

(c) Agricultural practices

fig 4.2: water pollution

Fig 4. 3: Land pollution

UNIT 5: EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ECOSYSTEMS 2 /(CONSERVATION AND

Conservation of endangered species

5.7 Comparison of human effects on protected to unprotected areas

Fig 6.1: A bacterium

Cell organelles Functions

vacuoles These are fluids-filled sacs

Golgi Apparatus Involved in synthesis of plant cell wall

Fig 6.4: Interphase

Fig 6.5: Prophase

Fig 6.7: telophase

Fig 6.8: overview mitosis

Table: Difference between mitosis and meiosis

Fig 6.11: Fertilization

Unit 7: HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

Fig 7.1: types of dentition

Fig7.2: tooth structure

Fig7.4: dental formula

7.3.4 Care of teeth

7.4.1 The alimentary canal

Fig 7.7: Structure of a villus

Constipation is controlled and prevented through:

UNIT 8: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS

Fig 8.1: Open circulatory system

Fig 8.3: Single circulatory system

Fig 8.4(a):Double circulatory system

Pulmonary circulation or small circulation

General circulation or systemic circulation

Fig8.5: Longitudinal section of the human heart

One heart beat consist of a diastole phase and a systole phase.

Fig 8.6: blood vessels structures

2 Rigid, tough Less rigid ( smooth) Very thin

3 Impermeable impermeable Permeable ( are site of diffusion into

5 Have a pulse No pulse No pulse

7 Usually carry Usually carry de- carry de-oxygenated blood and

Fig 8.7: Comparison of the three types of blood vessel

Fig8.9: Red blood cell

Fig8.10: Blood cells

 Waste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneys

 Heat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperature

 Antibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substances