Community Ecology

Community ecology is the study of how species interact with each other which affects the community
structure and organization.
Community is a group of populations of different species in the area. Some key relationships in the life of an
organism are its interactions with individuals of other species in the community. There are two main
classifications on how species interact specifically the interspecific and intraspecific. Interspecific
interaction refers on how different species interact with each other while the intraspecific interaction
occurs on the interaction between species. Within these classifications of interactions include competition,
predation, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism.
In this section, we’ll define and describe each of these interactions, recognizing that ecologists do not always
agree on the precise boundaries on each type of interaction. Well use the symbol + and – to indicate how
each interspecific interaction affects the survival and reproduction of two species engaged in the interaction.
For example, predation is a + / - interaction, with a positive effect on the survival and reproduction of the
predator population and a negative effect on that of the prey population.

5 Interactions that Occurs in the Community.

1. Competition is applied for both interspecific and
intraspecific interactions. Interspecific
competition is defined as a - / - interaction that
occurs when individuals of different species
compete for a resource that limits the growth and
survival. In the intraspecific competition applies
on the same species striving for growth and
survival. If competition is an important and
common phenomenon in nature, then we should
be able to observe it among individuals in the Fig. 5 Intraspecific competition
same species, individuals with the same species, Source: https://biologydictionary.net/competition/
individuals with identical or very similar
requirements.
2. Predation refers to a + / - interaction between
species in which one specie, the predator, kills and
eats the other, the prey. Though the term predation
generally elicits such images as a lion attacking and
eating an antelope, it applies to a wide range of
interactions. An animal that kills a plant by eating the
plant’s tissues can also be considered a predator.
Because eating and avoiding being eaten are
prerequisite to be reproductive success, the
adaptations of both predators and prey tend to be
refined through natural selection. Fig. 6 Predation
Source:
http://interactionsamonglivingthings.weebly.com/predation.htm
l

3. Parasitism is a + / - interspecific interaction which

one organism, the parasite, derives its nourishment
from another organism, its host, which is harmed in
the process. Parasites that love within the body of
their host, such as tapeworms, are called
endoparasites; parasites that feed on external
surface of a host, such as ticks, and lice, are called
ectoparasites. Parasites can significantly affect the
survival, reproduction, and density of their host
population, either directly or indirectly.
Fig. 7 Parasitism
Source:
https://sites.google.com/site/apesenvironmentalrelationships/par
asitism

4. Mutualism is an interspecific interaction that

benefits both species (+ /+). Mutualisms typically
involve the coevolution of related adaptations in both
species, with changes in either species likely to
affect the survival and reproduction of each other.
For example, most flowering plants have adaptations
such as nectar or fruit that attract animals that
pollinate flowers or disperse seeds. In turn, many
animals have adaptations that help them find and
consume the nectar. Fig. 8 Mutualism
Source: https://smallscience.hbcse.tifr.res.in/crocodile-and-the-plover-
bird/
5. Commensalism is an interaction between
species that benefits one of the species but neither
harms nor helps the other (+ / 0). Commensal is the
term used to identify the specie that benefits in this
type of interaction. Commensal interactions are
difficult to document in nature because any close
association between species likely affects both
species, even if only slightly. Some commensal
associations involve one species obtaining food that
is inadvertently exposed by another. Cowbirds and
cattle egrets feed on insects flushed out of the grass Fig. 9. Commensalism
by grazing bison, cattle, horses and other herbivores. Source: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/10-examples-of-
commensalism-in-nature.html
Because the birds increase their feeding rates when
following the herbivores, they clearly benefit from the
association. Much of the time, the herbivores may be unaffected by birds. However, they too, may sometimes
benefit; the birds occasionally remove and eat ticks and other ectoparasites from the herbivores or may warn
the herbivores of predator’s approach.
Ecological Succession
In the organisms that make up a society over time, ecological succession is a sequence of gradual
changes. Succession also requires a progression to communities with greater species diversity from
communities with lower species diversity, which may be less stable, which may be more stable, although this
is not a universal law. Two forms of succession, which vary in their starting points, are typically defined by
ecologists as primary and secondary succession.
When new land is created or bare rock is exposed, primary succession occurs, creating an
environment which can be colonized for the first time. On recently formed volcanic surfaces, such as lava
flows, primary succession also occurs. In the first 20 years after the retreating glacier is exposed, many
species of plants colonize an area. These plants form a pioneer community, the first in a successional
sequence. However, the substrate, rock, is broken down by weathering and other natural forces, enough for
the formation of some hearty plants and lichens with few soil requirements, known as pioneer organisms.
These species help to further break down the lava rich in minerals into soils where the pioneer species can
develop and eventually replace other, less hardy species. Moreover, as these early organisms grow and die,
they contribute to an ever-growing layer of decomposing organic matter and contribute to the formation of soil.
This process is repeated in sequence several times. At each stage, new species move into an area, often
because of environmental changes made by the preceding species, and can replace their predecessors. At
some level, the group may enter a relatively stable state and avoid changing its composition.
The subsequent succession is called secondary succession, in areas where disturbance kills a
population without destroying the soil. For example, after agricultural fields are abandoned or after a forest
fire, secondary succession takes place. In oak and hickory woodland cleared by wildfire, a classic example of
secondary succession occurs. Wildfires are going to destroy most vegetation and kill animals that are unable
to leave the area. However, their nutrients are in the form of ash returned to the earth. Since there is still
nutrient-rich soil in a disturbed environment, it can be recolonized much faster than the bare rock of primary
succession. The vegetation of the oak and hickory forest was dominated by tall trees before the fire. They
would have been enabled by their height to acquire solar energy, while also shading the soil and other low-
lying organisms. These trees do not spring back up right after the fire, though. Instead, the first plants to grow
back are usually annual plants followed by rapid growing and spreading grasses within a few years. The early
colonizers, as they are in the main, can be classified as pioneer species. For several years, shrubs will appear,
accompanied by small pine , oak, and hickory trees, at least partially due to environmental changes caused
by the growth of grasses and other plants. The oak and hickory trees would gradually, unless more
disturbances, become dominant and form a dense canopy, restoring the community to its original condition,
its pre-fire composition.

The end point of succession is called climax community. However, the concept of a fixed
succession course and a cohesive group of climaxes was called into question. Instead of following a
predetermined direction, it appears that, depending on the details of the case, succession will follow various
routes. While stable climax communities may also form in some instances, in many environments this may be
rare since ecosystems can undergo repeated disruptions that prevent a community from achieving a state of
equilibrium.
 CLICK THE HIGHLITED LINK TO VIEW THE LESSON PROPER.

LESSON NO. 8

I. INTRODUCTION:

This module introduces biomes as both climatically and geographically defined. Biomes are regions
of Earth that have similar climates and other abiotic (non-living) factors such as elevation, humidity,
and soil type. No matter where they occur on the planet, biomes have similar types of vegetation
and animal life, or ecological communities.

II. OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the module, students should be able to:

1. Identify the following biomes.

2. Classify the description of each biomes.

3. Determine the characteristics of aquatic biomes.

LESSON PROPER:

Biomes of the Earth

A biome is a large area characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife.
The Land Biomes

• Tundra

An extremely cold regions that lacks trees and has a permanently frozen subsurface soil. This
frozen soil layer is known as permafrost.

Covers Expansive areas of the arctic, amounting 20% of Earth’s land surface. High winds and
low temperatures produce similar plant communities called alpine tundra, on very high
mountaintops at all latitudes, including the tropics.
Precipitation: Precipitation averages from 20 to 60 cm annually in arctic tundra but may
exceed 100 cm in alpine tundra, 60 cm in alpine tundra.

Temperature: Winters are cold, with averages in some areas below -30°C. Summer

temperatures generally average less t han 10°C.

Plants: The vegetation of tundra is mostly herbaceous, consisting of a mixture of mosses,

grasses, and forbs, along with some dwarf shrubs and trees and lichens. A permanently
frozen layer of soil called permafrost restricts the growth of plant roots.

Animals: Large grazing musk oxen are resident, while caribou and reindeer are migratory.
Predators include bears, wolves, and foxes. Many bird species migrate to the tundra for
summer nesting.

Human Impact: Tundra is sparsely settled but has become the focus of significant mineral
and oil extraction in recent years.

• Taiga

Taiga, is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth. Precipitation Annual precipitation generally
ranges from 30 to 70cm and periodic droughts are common. However, some coastal
coniferous forests of the U.S. Pacific Northwest are temperate rain forests that may receive
over 300 cm of annual precipitation. Temperature winters are usually cold; summers may be
hot. Some areas of coniferous forest in Siberia typically range in temperature from-50°C in
winter to over 20°C in summer. Plants Northern coniferous forests are dominated by cone-
bearing trees, such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock, some of which depend on fire to
regenerate. The conical shape of many conifers prevents too much snow from accumulating
and breaking their branches, and their needle- or scale-like leaves reduce water loss. The
diversity of plants in the shrub and herb layers of these forests is lower than in temperate
broadleaf forests. Animals While many migratory birds nest in northern coniferous forests,
other species reside there year-round. The mammals of this biome, which include moose,
brown bears, and Siberian tigers, are diverse. Periodic outbreaks of insects that feed on the
dominant trees can kill vast tracts of trees. Human Impact although they have not been
heavily settled by human populations, northern coniferous forests are being logged at an
alarming rate, and the old-growth stands of these trees may soon disappear.

• Temperate Grassland

Distribution: The veldts of South Africa, the puszta of Hungary, the pampas of Argentina and
Uruguay, the steppes of Russia, and the plains and prairies of central North America are
examples of temperate grasslands.

Precipitation: Precipitation is often highly seasonal, with relatively dry winters and wet
summers. Annual precipitation generally averages between 30 and 100 cm. Periodic drought
is common. Temperature: Winters are generally cold, with average temperatures falling
below -10°C. Summers, with average temperatures often approaching 30°C, are hot. Plants
The dominant plants are grasses and forbs, which vary in height from a few centimeters to
2m in tallgrass praire. Many grassland plants have adaptation that help them survive
periodic, protracted droughts and fire. For example, grasses can sprout quickly following fire.
Grazing by large mammals helps prevent establishment of woody shrubs and tree.

Animals: Native mammals include large grazers such as bison and Wild horses. Temperate
grasslands are also inhabited America a wide variety of burrowing mammals, such as prairie
dogs in North America. Human Impact Deep, fertile soils make temperate grasslands ideal
places for agriculture, especially for growing grains. As a consequence, most grassland in
North America and much of Eurasia has been converted to farmland. In some drier
grasslands, cattle and other grazers have turned parts of the biome into desert.

• Tropical Forest

Distribution Tropical forest occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions. Precipitation In

tropical rain forests, rainfalls relatively constant, about 200-400 cm annually. In tropical dry
forests, precipitation is highly seasonal, about 150-200 cm annually, with a six- to seven-
month dry season. Temperature: High year-round, averaging 25-29°C with little seasonal
variation. Plants: Tropical forests are vertically layered, and competition for light is intense.
Layers in rain forests include trees that grow above a closed canopy, the canopy trees, one or
two layers of sub canopy trees, and layers of shrubs and herbs (small, nonwoody plants).
Broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant in tropical rain There are generally fewer layers in
tropical dry forests. A tropical forests, whereas many tropical dry forest trees drop their
leaves during the dry season. Epiphytes such as bromeliad and orchids generally cover
tropical forest trees but are less abundant in dry forests. Thorny shrubs and succulent plans
are common in some tropical dry forests. Animals Earth's tropical forests are home to
millions of species, including an estimated 5-30 million still undescribed species of insects,
spiders, and other arthropods. In fact, animal diversity higher in tropical forest than in any
other terrestrial biome. The animals. Including amphibians, birds and other reptiles,
mammals, and arthropods, are adapted to the vertically layered environment and are often
inconspicuous.

Human Impact: Humans long ago established thriving communities in tropical forests. Rapid
population growth leading to agriculture and development is now destroying many tropical
forest.

• Deciduous Forest

A deciduous forest is a biome dominated by deciduous trees which lose their leaves
seasonally. The Earth has temperate deciduous forests, and tropical and subtropical
deciduous forests, also known as dry forests. Another name for these forests is broad-leaf
forests because of the wide, flat leaves on the trees. Trees in tropical deciduous forests lose
their leaves in the dry season and regrow them in the rainy season. In temperate deciduous
forests, trees lose their leaves in the fall and regrow them in the spring.

Animals inhabiting deciduous forests include insects, spiders, reptiles and birds. Mice,
rabbits, foxes, deer, otters, bears and humans are just some examples of mammals that live
in deciduous forests. Tropical and subtropical deciduous forests are also home to mammals
such as elephants, monkeys, tigers, and giraffes.

Deciduous forests are home to trees such as oak, birch, beech, aspen, elm and maple.
Tropical and subtropical forests also have teak trees, palm trees and bamboo. Plants found in
these forests include flowers, ferns, mosses and herbs. In addition, tropical and subtropical
forests feature flowers such as orchids and numerous vines called lianas. The average
temperature of deciduous forests is 50°F and annual rainfall averages 30 to 60 inches.
Temperate deciduous forests also have precipitation in the form of snow. Deciduous forests
must have at least 120 days without frost. This period can extend to 250 days in some tropical
and subtropical deciduous forests. Tropical and subtropical deciduous forests have a very
tight temperature range between 68°F to 77°F. This is in stark contrast to temperate
deciduous forests, which have a far wider range of -22°F to 86°F. Precipitation in temperate
deciduous forests ranges 30 to 60 inches per year, while annual rainfall can be over 80 inches
in tropical and subtropical deciduous forests. Recent research shows climate change is
altering the way in which deciduous forests respond to temperature, precipitation and
drought.

Logging, conversion of the land into agriculture, deforestation for housing development,
forest fires, and farming are all examples of how Humans impact the deciduous forest.
Logging and deforestation have an impact on the forest because humans cut down millions of
trees each year for housing construction.

• Desert

Distribution: Deserts occur in bands near 30° north and south latitude or at other latitudes in
the interior of continents (for instance, the Gobi Desert of north-central Asia).

Precipitation: Precipitation is low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year.
Temperature: Temperature is variable seasonally and daily, maximum air temperature in
hot deserts may exceed S0°C; in cold deserts air temperature may fall below-30°C.Plants
Desert: landscapes are dominated by low, widely scattered vegetation; the proportion of
bare ground is high compared with other terrestrial biomes. The plants include succulents
such as cacti or euphorbs, deeply rooted shrubs, and herbs that grow during the infrequent
moist periods. Desert plant adaptations include tolerance of heat and desiccation, water
storage, and reduced leaf surface area. Physical defenses, such as spines, and chemical
defenses, such as toxins in the leaves of shrubs, are common.

Animals: Common desert animals include snakes and lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles,
migratory and resident birds, and seed-eating rodents. Many species are nocturnal. Water
conservation is a common adaptation, with some species surviving solely on water obtained
from breaking down carbohydrates in seeds. Human Impact: Long-distance transport of
water and deep groundwater wells have allowed humans to maintain substantial population
in deserts. Urbanization and conversion to irrigated agriculture have reduced the natural
biodiversity of some deserts.

• Savanna

Distribution Savanna: Occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions.

Precipitation: Seasonal rainfall averages 30-50 cm per year. The dry season can last up to
eight or nine months. Temperature: The savanna is warm year-round, averaging 24-29°C, but
with somewhat more seasonal variation than in tropical forests. Plants: The scattered trees
found at different densities in the savanna often are thorny and have small leaves, an
apparent adaptation to the relatively dry conditions. Fires are common in the dry season, and
the dominant plant species are fire-adapted and tolerant of seasonal drought. Grasses and
small nonwoody plants called forbs, which make up most of the ground cover, grow rapidly in
response to seasonal rains and are tolerant of grazing by large mammals and other
herbivores. Animals: Large plant-eating mammals, such as wildebeests and zebras, and
predators, including lions and hyenas, are common inhabitants. However, the dominant
herbivores are actually insects, especially termites. During seasonal droughts, grazing
mammals often migrate to parts of the savanna with more forage and scattered watering
holes. Human Impact: There is evidence that the earliest humans lived in savannas. Fires set
by humans may help maintain this biome, though overly frequent fires reduce tree
regeneration by killing the seedlings and saplings. Cattle ranching and overhunting have led
to declines in large-mammal population.

The Aquatic Biomes:

Unlike terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes are characterized primarily by their physical
environment. They also show far less latitudinal variation, with all types found across the
globe. Ecologist distinguish between freshwater and marine biomes on the basis of physical
and chemical differences. Marine biomes generally have salt concentrations that average 3%,
whereas freshwater biomes are usually characterized by a salt concentration of less than
0.1%.

The oceans make up the largest marine biome, covering about 75% of Earth's surface.
Because of their vast size, they greatly impact the biosphere. Water evaporated from the
oceans provides most of the planet's rainfall, and ocean temperatures have a major effect on
global climate and wind patterns. Marine algae and photosynthetic bacteria also supply
much of the world's oxygen and consume large amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Freshwater biomes are closely linked to the soils and biotic components of the surrounding
terrestrial biome. The particular characteristics of a freshwater biome are also influenced by
the patterns and speed of water flow and the climate to which the biome is exposed.

• Marine Biome

The marine biome is an environment characterized by the presence of salt water. The marine
biome is found in all of Earth's oceans and is the largest biome in the world. The marine
biome is home to an amazing array of living organisms, from the enormous blue whale to

microscopic cyanobacteria.

Marine Biome Climate

The average water temperature of the marine biome is 39 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees
Celsius) but can be colder or warmer depending on location. Shallow oceans or those near the
equator will have a higher temperature than those near the poles. Depth and temperature of
the marine waters greatly impact all life within the marine biome.

Marine Water

Marine water is generally composed of about 96.5% pure water and 3.5% percent dissolved
compounds. Salinity refers to the saltiness of water.

Marine Water and Sunlight

Marine water is inhabited by a wide variety of organisms that depend on the presence of
sunlight and nutrients in order to thrive. Coastal marine ecosystems are able to retain more
nutrients than those of the deep ocean because dead organic matter falls to the sea floor
where it becomes available for marine organisms. Nutrients are recycled quickly through a
marine ecosystem and do not build up on the sea floor the way soil does in a terrestrial
forest. The availability of sunlight is largely dependent on water depth. Sunlight becomes less
available as ocean water becomes deeper. Other factors that influence light availability
include local cloud cover, water turbidity, ocean surface conditions and water depth. The
photic zone refers to water depths of up to approximately 100 meters, where sunlight can
penetrate and photosynthesis can occur. The aphotic zone refers to water depths greater
than 100 meters, where light cannot penetrate and photosynthesis cannot occur.

Marine Ecosystems

A marine ecosystem is the interaction of the community of marine organisms and their
environment. Marine ecosystems are characterized by factors such as availability of light,
food and nutrients. Other factors that affect marine ecosystems include water temperature,
depth and salinity, as well as local topography. Changes in these conditions can change the
composition of species that make up the marine community. The pelagic zone includes the
water and organisms that spend their lives floating or swimming in the water. Pelagic
organisms include plankton (such as algae, bacteria, protozoans and diatoms) that drift in
the ocean currents and provide the basis of the marine food chain and nekton (such as fish,
penguins, squid and whales) that swim and eat the plankton and smaller organisms.

The benthic zone includes the sea floor and the organisms that live there. Benthic zones
include semi-dry areas such as intertidal zones, coastal marine ecosystems like coral reefs,
and also deep ocean trenches. Benthic organisms receive nutrients from organic matter that
falls from the pelagic zone. Benthic plants and plant-like organisms include sea grasses,
seaweeds and algae. Examples of benthic animals include crabs, corals, shellfish and sea
stars.

Examples of Marine Ecosystems

Examples of marine ecosystems include coral reefs, estuaries, open ocean, mangrove swamps
and seagrass meadows. Marine ecosystems can generally be split into two categories: coastal
and open ocean habitats. While only 7% of the total area of the ocean is considered coastal
habitat, the majority of marine life is located in coastal waters. Coastal waters have more
available sunlight and nutrients than the open ocean.

Freshwater Biomes

• Lakes

Physical environment Standing bodies of Lakes water range from ponds a few square meters
in area to lakes covering thousands of square creating stratification. Temperate lakes may
kilometers. Light decreases with depth, have a seasonal thermocline; tropical lowland lakes

have a thermocline year-round.

Chemical Environment The salinity, Oxygen concentration, and nutrient content differ
greatly among lakes and can vary with season. Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor and
generally oxygen-rich; eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen in the
deepest zone in summer and if covered with ice in winter. The amount of decomposable
organic matter in bottom sediments is low in oligotrophic lakes and high in eutrophic lakes;
high rates of decomposition in deeper layers of eutrophic lakes cause periodic oxygen
depletion.

Heterotrophs: In the limnetic zone, small drifting heterotrophs, or zooplankton, graze in the
phytoplankton. The benthic zones inhabited by assorted invertebrates whose species
composition depends partly on oxygen levels. Fishes live in all zones with sufficient oxygen.

Human impact: Runoff from fertilized land and dumping of wastes lead to nutrient
enrichment, which can produce algal blooms, Oxygen depletion, and fish kills.

• Streams and Rivers

Physical Environment: The most prominent physical characteristic of streams and rivers is
the speed and volume of their flow. Headwater streams are generally cold, clear, turbulent,
and swift. Farther downstream, where numerous tributaries may have joined, forming a
river, the water is generally warmer and more turbid because of suspended sediment.

Streams and rivers are stratified into vertical zones.

Chemical Environment: The salt and nutrient content of streams and rivers increases from
the headwaters to the mouth. Headwaters are generally rich in oxygen. Downstream water
may also contain substantial oxygen, except where there has been organic enrichment. A
large fraction of the organic matter in rivers consists of dissolved or highly fragmented
material that is carried by the current from forested streams.

Geologic Features: Headwater stream channels are often narrow, have a rocky bottom, and
alternate between shallow sections and deeper pools. The downstream stretches of rivers are
generally wide and meandering. River bottoms are often silty from sediments deposited over

long periods of time.

Heterotrophs: A great diversity of fishes and invertebrates inhabit unpolluted rivers and
streams, distributed according to, and throughout, the vertical zones. In streams flowing
through temperate or tropical forests, organic matter from terrestrial vegetation is the
primary source of food for aquatic consumers.

Human Impact: Municipal, agricultural, and industrial pollution degrade water quality and
kill aquatic organisms. Damming and flood control impair the natural functioning or stream
and river ecosystems and threaten migratory species such as salmon.

• Estuaries

Physical Environment: An estuary is a transition area between river and sea. Seawater flows
up the estuary channel during a rising tide and flows back down during the falling tide. Often,
higher-density seawater occupies the bottom of the channel and mixes a little with the
lower-density river water at the surface. Heterotrophs: Estuaries support an abundance of
worms, oysters, crabs, and many fish species that humans consume. Many marine
invertebrates and fishes use estuaries as a breeding ground or migrate through them to
freshwater habitats

Upstream. Estuaries are also crucial feeding areas for waterfowl and some marine mammals.

Human Impact: Filling, dredging, and pollution from upstream have disrupted estuaries
worldwide.

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 WEEK 9-LESSON
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a broad term that is used to describe the diversity of genes, species, and ecosystems in a
region. Biodiversity is lost when populations are greatly reduced in size, when a species becomes extinct, or
when ecosystems are destroyed or greatly modified. Biodiversity can be examined at the genetic, species,
and ecosystem levels.
Genetic diversity
The total number of genetic characteristics of a specific species, subspecies, or group of species. In terms
of genetic engineering and our new understanding of DNA, this could mean the total base- pair sequences
in DNA; the total number of genes, active or not; or the total number of active genes.
Population is a group of individuals of the same species, living in the same area or interbreeding and sharing
genetic information. A species is all individuals that are capable of interbreeding. A species is made up of
populations. Several things influence the genetic diversity of a population. Mutations are changes in the
genetic information of an organism. Mutations introduce new genetic information into a population by
modifying genes that are already present. Most of the mutations we observe are harmful, but the occasionally
a mutation results in a new valuable characteristic. Migration of individuals of a species from one population
to another is also an important way to alter the genetic diversity of population. Most species consist of many
separate populations that are adapted to local environmental conditions. Sexual reproduction is another
process that influences genetic diversity. Although the process of sexual reproduction does not create new
genetic information, it tends to generate new genetic combinations when the genetic information from two
individuals mixes during fertilization, generating a unique individual.
Population size is a very important factor related to genetic diversity. The smaller the population, the less
genetic diversity it can contain and the fewer the variations in the genes for specific characteristics. Selective
breeding also can affect the genetic diversity of a species. Domesticated plants and animals have been
modified over many generations by our choosing certain desired characteristics.
Species Diversity

Measurement of the number of different species present in an area, which in turn has three qualities: Species'
richness-the total number of species; Species' evenness-the relative abundance of species; and Species'
dominance-the most abundant species.
Several factors are known to influence the species diversity of a particular location:
1. The geologic and evolutionary history of a region impacts its species diversity. As mentioned earlier,
tropical rainforests naturally have greater species diversity than Polar Regions. Perhaps this is due to
relatively recent climatic events.
2. Migration can introduce new species to an area where they were not present previously. While it is easy
to see how such introductions can increase species diversity, some invading species actually result in a
reduction in species diversity because the species originally present were unable to compete with the invader.

3. The size of the area being considered also affects species diversity. In general, the larger the area being
considered, the larger the species diversity.
4. Human activity has a great effect on the species diversity of a region.
Ecosystem Biodiversity
Measurement of the number of kinds of ecosystems present in an area. Many regions of the world appear to
be quite uniform in terms of the kinds of ecosystems present.

Philippines as High Species Diversity and High Endemicity

Endemic organisms are exclusively native to a place or a biota.
Endangered species present in such small numbers that is at risk of
extinction.

Fig. 2 Philippine Monkey-Eating Eagle

Source: https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/photo/2011-08/21/content_13159086.htm

Some Endangered Animals in the Philippines:

Found in the rainforests of Isabela, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao. It has similarities with Papua New Guinea's
Harpy Eagle (Harpyopsis novaeguinea) and considered as one of the world's largest Eagle.
With an estimated population of 100 to 300, the Philippine eagle 1s in danger of extinction. It is one
of the 400 exotic bird species in the Philippines, which, if not protected, would disappear from the face of the
Earth. Unique Pygmy water buffalos (Bubalus mindorensis) endemic to Mindoro listed as one of the ten most
endangered species in the world. From 10,000 heads in the 1900's, population went down to 369 heads in
the late 1980s to as few as 20 heads roaming in the wild today.
Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) measures only about twelve centimeters in length. lts two big eyes
cannot move and do not have a tapetum the upper protective
tissue; can turn its head 180 degrees. Found in the islands
of Samar, Leyte, Bohol and Mindanao, the Philippine tarsier
got its name from its elongated tarsus bone. There are only
about 1,000 tarsiers inhabiting the wilds of Corella town in
Bohol province where the biggest concentration of these rare
animals was once reported.

Fig.3 - Philippine Tarsier

Source: https://www.zenrooms.com/blog/post/philippine-tarsier-
sanctuary/

Philippine Red Vented 110

Fig.4 Philippine red vented cockatoo Fig.5 Sulu Hornbill

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/522769469230971859/ Source: https://www.oiseaux.net/birds/sulu.hornbill.html

Some Endemic Animals in the Philippines:

Fig.6 - Mindoro Pallid Flying Fox Fig.7 -Negros Bleeding Heart Pigeon

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/387098530454854160/ Source: https://steemit.com/animal/@greatwarrior79/the-negros-bleeding-

heart-pigeon-gallicolumba-keayi
 Fig.9 - Hawksbill sea turtle
Fig.8 - Philippine-Flat Headed Frog
Source: https://www.britannica.com/animal/hawksbill-turtle
Source: https://www.art.com/products/p27981069586-sa-i8402633/robin-
moore-a-philippine-flat-headed-frog-barbourula-busuangensis-a-

vulnerable-species-from-palawan.htm

Fig.11 - Tridacna gigas

Fig.10 Philippine tube-nosed bat
Tridacna gigas; one of the world’s largest shells.
Source: https://batgirlblogdotcom.wordpress.com/2016/02/25/the-
philippine-tube-nosed-fruit-bat/ Source: https://www.canstockphoto.com/giant-clam-tridacna-gigas-
51083466.html
Characteristics of Organism Prone to Extinction
Characteristics extinction occurs when all the individuals of a complete eliminated. Lists of major factors that
affect extinction as follows;
1. Species that have small populations of dispersed individuals are more prone to extinction because
successful breeding is more difficult for them than it is for species that have large populations of relatively
high density.
2. Organism in small, restricted areas, such as islands, are also prone to extinction because an environmental
change in their locale can eliminate the entire species at once. Organisms scattered over large areas are
much less likely to be negatively affected by one event.
3. Specialized organisms are more likely to become extinct than are generalized ones. Since specialized
organisms rely on a few key factors in the environment, anything that negatively affects these factors could
result in their extinction, whereas generalists can use alternate resources.
Some kinds of organisms, such as carnivores at higher trophic levels in food chains, typically have low
populations but also have low rates of reproduction compared to their prey species.
 PHILIPPINES BIODIVERSITY
The world's largest pearl was discovered by a Filipino diver in a giant Tridacna (mollusk) under the Palawan
Sea in 1934. Known as the "Pearl of Lao-Tzu", the gem weighs 14 and measures.9 1/2 inches long and.5
1/2 inches. As May 1984, it was Valued at US$42 million. It is believed to be 600 years old.
World's Second Deepest Spot Underwater
The world's second deepest spot underwater is in the Philippines. This spot, known as the Philippine Deep
or the sea level. The Philippine Deep is in the floor of the Mindanao Trench, is about 10,497meters or 34;440
feet below Philippine Sea.

World's Largest and Tiniest Shells

Both Tridacna gigas, one of the world's largest shells, and Pisidum, the
world's tiniest shell, can, be found under Philippine waters. Tridacna gigas
grows as large as one meter in length and weighs 600 pounds while
Pisidum is less than 1 millimeter long.

Fig. 12 Pisidium

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisidium

Sanctuary' to Whale Sharks

Donsol, a fishing town in Sorsogon province, serves as a sanctuary to a group of 40 whale sharks (Rhincodon
typos), which are considered as the largest fish in the world, measuring between 18 to 35 feet in length and
weighing about 20 tons. Locally known as "butanding", whale "butanding", whale sharks visit the waters of
Donsol from November to May.
Philippine Cockatoo
The Philippines is home to some of the world's most exotic birds. One of the most endangered species is the

Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haernaturopygia), which belongs to Psittacidae or the Kalangay or the cidae or
the fan of parrots. Some cockatoos can live up to 50 years.
Shortest Freshwater Fish
The world's shortest and lightest freshwater fish is that the dwarf pygmy goby (Pandaka Pygmaea), a
colorless and nearly transparent species found in the streams and lakes of Luzon. Males have an average
length of 8.7 mm. and weigh 4. 5 mg
Coral Species
Of the 500 known coral species in the world, 488 are found in the Philippines.
Rarest Shell
There are 12,000 or so seashells in the Philippines. The Conus Gloriamaris or "Glory of the Sea" is the rarest
and most expensive.

Marine Turtles
Of the eight species of marine turtles worldwide, five are reported to be found in the Philippines: the Green
Turtie Hawkbill, Leatherback, Olive Ridley, and Loggerhead.
Giant Clams
Of the eight known species of giant clams in the world, seven found in the Philippines.
Second Largest Bird in the Planet

, the country is host to some 5 percent of the world's species of flora and is ranked 5th in the world in terms
of number of plant species)
Mightiest River
The Cagayan River or Rio Grande de Cagayan is the Philippines mightiest watercourse the longest and
widest river in the country. Small streams originating from Balete Pass, Cordillera, Carabalio and Sierra
Madre Mountains meet other streams and rivers and flow to the Cagayan River.

Second Largest Lake

Lake Lanao is the second largest lake in the Philippines, probably the deepest in the country and is
considered one of the major tropical lakes in Southeast Asia. The lake is home to the endemic cryprinids, the
species found only in the lake and nowhere else in the world.
Palawan Bear Cat
Palawan bearcat is neither a bear nor a cat. Known in Southeast Asia as
binturong, the bearcat is a species of its own, with population in then
'forests of Palawan, Borneo, Burma and Vietnam it belongs to the family
of Viverridae (Civets). The Palawan bearcat has a long body and a pointed
face leading to the nose. Its head and body measure 61 to 96 centimeters
in combined length while its tail is almost as long. It weighs 9 to 14
kilograms and lives up to 20 years.

Fig.13 -Palawan bear cat

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/94857135889330480/

Calamian Deer
Calamian Islands, north of Palawan province, is home to a species of
deer that cannot be found elsewhere. Scientist referred to the hog deer
in the islands as Calamian deer in order to distinguish them from other
hog deer in the world. An ordinary Calamian deer measures 105 to
115 centimeter in length and 60 to 65 centimeters high at the shoulder
and weighs about 36 to 50 kilograms. It is said to have longer and
darker legs, compared with other hog deer.

Fig.14 –Palawan Calamian deer

Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/94857135889330480/

World's Smallest Hoofed Mammal

The Philippine mouse deer, the world's smallest hoofed mammal, is
found only in the Balabac Islands, south of Palawan. Locally known as
Pilandok (Tragalus nigricans), this ruminant stands only about 40
centimeters at the shoulder level.

Fig. 15 - Pilandok

Source: http://mgahayopsapilipinas.weebly.com/pilandok.html
Flying Lemur
Flying Lemur, one of the most distinct creatures on earth lives in the
Philippines. It does not have wings but it can glide across 100 meters
of space in a single leap. Like the lemurs of Asia, it moves around at
night. Its head resembles that of a dog while its body has similarities
with the flying squirrel of Canada in Mindanao, people call it
"kagwang”. Around the world, it is known as colugo or the flying
lemur.

Fig.16 Philippine flying lemur (Kagwang)

Source: https://alchetron.com/Philippine-flying-lemur

Whale Shark
The largest fish in the world, the Whale Shark, regularly swims to the Philippine waters. It is locally known as
Butanding.
 WEEK 10-LESSON
Philippines Biodiversity Hotspots
The Philippines hold the distinction as the only country in the region as a biodiversity hotspot because of
geological movement, tropical weather and once extensive forest cover or the country have combined to
develop high species diversity in some groups of organisms and very high level of Some features of the
Philippines 'rich biodiversity include:

 It has more than 52,177 described species, half of which are endemic or found nowhere else on
earth. There are more than 1,130 terrestrial wildlife species recorded for the Philippines (49 percent
or half are endemic); 157 are threatened (128 are threatened endemic).
 Floral diversity is in between 10,000 and 14,000 species of vascular and non-vascular plants, more
than half of which are endemic. Altogether, the country is host to some 5 percent of the world's
species of flora and is ranked 5th in the world in terms of number of plant species.
 An estimated total of 359 species of amphibians (101 species) and reptiles (258 species) are now
known in the country. Of the 359 species, 246 are endemic - currently the highest known percentage
endemism among vertebrates. 576 species of birds (195 are endemic). This record makes the
Philippines the 4th country in the world terms of bird endemism. About 45 species are either extinct
in the wild, critical, or endangered.
 174 mammalian species (111 are endemic), the archipelago has the greatest concentration of
terrestrial mammalian diversity in the world and the greatest concentration of endemic mammals in
the world on a per unit basis.
In the last 15 years, field researchers, mostly at high elevation areas have found new species in particular of
murid rodents, in Luzon, Mindanao, and Mindoro. Several new species have been discovered in small islands
such as Sibuyan (five new species) and Camiguin (two new species), catapulting these islands to a new
status as centers of mammal endemism. Source: Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau of the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) released the New Conservation Areas in the Philippines Project
(NewCAPP),2011
Threats to Biodiversity: Loss and Extinction
Biodiversity is lost when populations are great greatly reduced in size, when a species becomes extinct or
when extinct, or when ecosystems are destroyed or greatly modified.
Currently, the most rapid changes affecting biodiversity are taking place in developing countries. This means
that the harmful effects of biodiversity loss and the degradation of ecosystem services are borne
disproportionately by the poor.
1. Climate change and excessive nutrient loading are two major factors affecting biodiversity that are
expected to become more severe in the future. Better protection of
biodiversity and natural assets will require coordinated efforts across
all levels of government, business, and international institutions. The
productivity of ecosystems depends on policy choices in investment,
trade, subsidy, taxation, and regulation, among others.

Fig. 3 Climate change

Source: https://www.bioexplorer.net/threats-
to-biodiversity.html/

2. Habitat loss occurs when human activities result in the

conversion of natural ecosystems to human-dominated systems.
The resulting changes eliminate or reduce numbers of species that
were a part of the original ecosystem.
The primary activities that result in habitat loss are farming, forestry,
grazing by livestock, modification of aquatic habitats, and
Fig. 4 Deforestation
conversion to urban and industrial landscapes.
Source: https://www.bioexplorer.net/threats-
In the Philippines, deforestation (forest denudation and to-biodiversity.html/
fragmentation) is a leading cause of habitat destruction that
negatively impacts biodiversity on an exponential scale. Poorly controlled logging and mining activities have
created mostly irreparable damage to forest cover, affecting the diverse assemblages of flora and fauna that
inhabit those primary forest territories. Findings stated in the DENR-FMB’s (Department of Environment and
Natural Resources-Forest Management Bureau) 2011 Philippine Forest Statistics establish that only about
24% remains of the country’s forest cover, with lows falling as badly as 20% in the late 1990s. Regardless of
the slight improvement over the past decade, these numbers still illustrate a severe drop from 70% at the
start of the 20th century.

Through the years, conversion of land for residential and commercial use has also contributed the same
effects in lower-lying habitats.
In like manner, marine habitats such as coral reefs are being destroyed by way of irresponsible and
unsustainable fishing and aquaculture is harming marine habitats ecosystems all over the country. Notable
examples of these are dynamite and poison-dependent fishing practices that are still being practiced to this
day, as well as more recent developments such as black sand mining in the northern Philippines. As a result,
the Philippine coral reef system is down to 5% in terms of being in excellent condition, as over 32% are
already severely damaged. The World Resources Institute more recently (July 2013) reports that 85% of the
reefs in the Coral Triangle (the region covering countries such as the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, et al.)
are threatened, shadowing the global average which stands at 60%.
3. Pollution
Be it water, air, or land pollution, all forms of pollution appear to be a
threat to all life forms on Earth. However, it plays a major threat to
biodiversity when it comes to the nutrient loading of the elements
nitrogen and phosphorus.

Fig. 5 Pollution

Source:
4. Invasive Species
https://www.bioexplorer.net/threats-to-
biodiversity.html/ An exotic or unnatural
species can be any kind of
organism that has been
introduced to a foreign habitat. This introduction can cause major
threats to the native species as they often become subjected to
great competition for resources, disease, and predation. When
these species have successfully colonized the area, they are Fig. 6 Invasive species

already called “invasive” ones. Source: https://www.bioexplorer.net/threats-to-

biodiversity.html/
 Next to habitat loss, invasive species are ranked as the
second biggest threat to biodiversity.
 The greatest threat that invasive species can bring is their capability to change an entire habitat.
These species are highly adaptable and can easily dominate a certain area. Because many natural
species survive only in a particular environment, they tend to be displaced, or worse, perish.
Some places have very low possibilities for the invasion of species. Usually, these places include
those with harsh environmental conditions like extreme temperatures and high salinity.
5. Overexploitation

Overexploitation refers to the act of overharvesting species and

natural resources at rates faster than they can actually sustain
themselves in the wild. Because of this, species population is put
into great risk of reduction.
Overharvesting, overfishing, and overhunting are some examples
Fig. 7 Overexploitation
of overexploitation.
Source: https://www.bioexplorer.net/threats-to-
Additionally, some species of living organisms find it hard to biodiversity.html/
reproduce when their number is too small.
So as a population or ecosystem continues to suffer from low species diversity, the probability of getting
wiped out completely when a natural disaster or other forces increases.
If the act of overexploitation continues, it can ultimately bring extinction to many species, even if they still
exist in the wild.
Exploitation of Natural Resources and Wildlife

One more horrifyingly deliberate cause of biodiversity loss is the participation in the extraction and exploitation
of natural resources, including wildlife itself, for economic purposes. What started out as mere “subsistence
hunting and gathering” among traditional societies have been exacerbated into far less sustainable practices
upon the advancement of international economic relationships.
Perhaps even more worrying is the fact that this happens both within legal bounds as well as beyond them.
Mining and forestry – leading contributors to habitat destruction, as described above – is also an example of
exploitative utilization of resources. Meanwhile, when it comes to wildlife, the demand for “exotic” plants and
animals, for example, perpetuates the species decline crisis.
Many critically endangered species today, both on land and at sea, have over-exploitative and misguided
hunting and practices to blame for their current plight. It’s important to note “misguided” in this argument,
because much of wildlife trade today is driven by demand for certain animal parts that are used for by products
that promise unproven or non-scientific benefits. Take, for instance, rhinoceros horns and shark fins.

Beyond such inappropriate hunting practices, unsustainable means of natural resource gathering are also a
legitimate concern. The state of aquatic resources illustrates this effect very well, as over-fishing and use of
unsound fishing equipment (trawl nets, dynamite, cyanide, et al.) have contributed to a widespread fish stock
depletion in many areas around the world. Coral mining is likewise an unsustainable resource-gathering
practice, and equates with habitat destruction for numerous marine species.
Whether sold directly or used as food, raw materials for various types of manufactured products, and captive
exhibition, the unsound exploitation of natural resources and wildlife unequivocally irresponsible and
unsustainable. Unfortunately, a large fraction of the public is unaware of the ecological impact of this line of
trade, and are thus still drawn to their unique appeal.
Extinction is the death of a species-the elimination of all the individuals of a particular kind. Extinction is a
natural and common event in the long history of biological evolution.
 WEEK 11- LESSON

What is Biodiversity Conservation?

Biodiversity conservation is the protection and management of biodiversity to obtain resources for sustainable
development.
Why should you conserve Biodiversity?
 It is believed that an area with higher species abundance has a more stable environment compared
to an area with lower species abundance. We can further claim the necessity of biodiversity by
considering our degree of dependency on the environment. We depend directly on various species
of plant for our various needs. Similarly, we depend on various species of animals and microbes for
different reasons.
 Biodiversity is being lost due to the loss of habitat, over-exploitation of resources, climatic changes,
pollution, invasive exotic species, diseases, hunting, etc. Since it provides us with several economic
and ethical benefits and adds aesthetic value, it is very important to conserve biodiversity.
Why is it important to conserve biodiversity?
 Biodiversity conservation is important because biodiversity provides certain services and resources
that are essential for life on earth. Biodiversity also provides social benefits.
DENR MBB (Biodiversity Management Bureau)
PROTECTED AREA DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
 This Program covers the main in-situ measures to conserve biodiversity within and adjacent to
protected areas pursuant to Republic Act 7586 or the National Integrate Protected Areas System
(NIPAS) Act of 1992 as amended by Republic Act 11038 or the Expanded NIPAS (ENIPAS) Act of
2018. The passage also led to the legislation of additional 94 Protected Areas, making a total of 244
Protected Areas composed of about 7.8M hectares (107 legislated; 13 proclaimed; 124 remaining
initial components). It will ensure that the current NIPAS and ENIPAS coverage is rationalized by
maintaining and prioritizing those with high biodiversity values while providing appropriate
governance regime for the protection of Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) such as through Local
Conservation Areas (LCAs) with the LGU concerned and through Indigenous Community Conserved
Areas (ICCAs).

MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES/AREAS

 This program focuses on the sustainable management of coral reefs, sea grass beds, mangrove
stands, soft bottom areas (mudflats), plankton community, and water quality of coastal areas. These
coastal ecosystems are important in the completion of life cycles of a wide variety of commercially
and ecologically important marine life which support livelihood for nearly 60% of Filipinos. Under this
Program is the Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Management Program (CMEMP) pursuant to DENR
Administrative Order 2016-26 which aims to achieve the effective management of the country’s
 coastal and marine ecosystems thereby increasing their ability to provide ecological goods and
services to improve the quality of life of the coastal population particularly ensuring food security,
climate change resiliency and disaster risk reduction. It also contributes to the achievement of the
PDP and PBSAP targets including international commitments such as the Aichi Targets and the UN
Sustainable Development Goals (Goal 14 – Life below Water).
PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE
 This program deals with the conservation and protection of wildlife, and/or maintenance, restoration,
and enhancement of their habitats pursuant to Republic Act 9147 or the Wildlife Resources
Conservation and Protection Act of 2001. Priority activities under this program are the following: (i)
Sustainable wildlife resource use; (ii) management of invasive alien species (IAS); and (iii)
Enforcement of wildlife laws, rules and regulations which include the operations/mobilization of
Wildlife Traffic Monitoring Units (WTMUs); deputation and mobilization of Wildlife Enforcement
Officers (WEOs); operations and maintenance of Wildlife Rescue Centers (WRCs); establishment
and management of Critical Habitats; and conservation of threatened wildlife species such as, but
not limited to, the marine turtle, dugong (Dugong dugon), tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), Philippine
eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), freshwater and saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus mindorensis;
Crocodylus porosus), tarsier (Carlito syrichta), Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), and
Visayan spotted deer (Rusa alfredi).
Biodiversity Conservation Priority Areas in the Philippines
 From the identified biogeographic regions, the PBCPP convenors further noted and mapped out 206
integrated priority areas for biodiversity conservation initiatives, 170 of which are terrestrial and 36
are marine. These biologically important areas were so named according to analyses of data from
five taxon-based thematic groups (plants, arthropods, amphibians and reptiles, birds, and mammals),
two ecosystem-based groups (inland and marine waters), and one socio-economic group.
 The areas identified by the taxon-based and ecosystem-based groups, in light of the input provided
by the socio-economic group, were also classified according to level of priority. For the 170 terrestrial
priority areas, there are 92 Extremely High, 60 Very High, 3 High, and 15 Insuffecient Data (at the
time of the PBCPP) areas, while for the 36 marine priority areas, there are 14 Extremely High, 12
Very High, and 10 High priority areas.

WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT

Legal Bases
Republic Act 7586 - National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) expresses the legal framework
for the establishment and management of protected areas in the Philippines. The Law defines protected
areas as the identified portions of land and/or water set aside by reason of their unique physical and biological
significance, managed to enhance biological diversity and protected against destructive human exploration.
The establishment and management of protected areas are part of the international commitments signed by
the Philippine Government such Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar Convention, World Heritage
Convention, Convention on Migratory Species, and the ASEAN Agreement on, the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources.
Republic Act 9147 Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act ensuring ecological
sustainability. The primary aim of R.A. 9147 is to protect our
The country's fauna from illicit trade, abuse and destruction, through:
1. Conserving and protecting wildlife species and their habitats,
2. Regulating the collection and trade of wildlife,
3. Pursuing, with due regard to the national interest, the Philippine commitment to international conventions,
protection of wildlife and their habitats, and,
4. Initiating or supporting scientific studies on the conservation of biological diversity.
Things an Individual Can Do to Support these Acts:
1. If you observe an act of poaching, or see a poached animal, inform the local Environment Management
Bureau of the Local Government Unit. (LGU) at the highest possible level. One can also report the event
through the press. Follow up to check that action is taken by the concerned authority. If no action is taken,
one must take it up to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
2. Say "No" to the use of wildlife products and also try to convince other people not to buy them.
3. Reduce the use of wood and wood products wherever possible.
4. Avoid misuse of paper because it is made from bamboo and wood, which destroys wildlife habitat.
Paper and envelopes can always be reused.
5. Create a pressure group and ask Government to ensure that the biodiversity of our country is conserved.
6. Do not harm animals. Stop others from inflicting cruelty to animals.
7 Do not disturb birds' nests and fledglings.
8. When you visit the Zoo, do not tease the animals by throwing stones or feeding them, and prevent others
from doing so.
9. If you come across an injured animal do what you can to help it.
10. If the animal needs medical care and expert attention, bring it to the veterinary clinic.
11. Create awareness about biodiversity conservation in your own way to family and friends.
12. Join organizations, which are concerned with protection of biodiversity like Worldwide Fund for Nature
Philippines. (WWF- P), or a local conservation Non-Government Organization.

FOREST CONSERVATION ACT

Legal bases

 Presidential Decree 389 (Presidential Decree 705) The Forestry Reform Code codifies updates and
raises forestry laws in the country. It emphasizes the sustainable utilization of forest resources.
 Presidential Decree 330 and Presidential Decree 953 laws on penalizing illegal cutting of trees
 Presidential Decree 953 and Presidential Decree 1153 – laws on tree planting
  Presidential Decree 331-laws requiring all public forests be developed on a sustained yield basis.
These Decrees were enacted to protect the forests of our country, and therefore warrants great attention
for the conservation of terrestrial biodiversity consequently, the entire ecosystem
Things an Individual Can Do to Support these Acts:
1. Acquaint yourself with the laws, detailed rules and orders issued by the Government
2. Be in touch with concerned local NGOs and associations. Organize one with other like-minded people if
none exist in your area.
3 Create awareness about the existence and value of National Parks and Sanctuaries, and build up a public
opinion against illegal activities in the forest or disturbance to wildlife.
4. Pressure the authorities to implement the forest and wildlife laws and rules to protect green areas.
5. Take legal action if necessary. Use the help of NGOs who can undertake legal action.
6. Help to create public pressure to update and improve the rules, laws, and procedures when necessary.
7. Use better, ecologically sensitive public transport and bicycle tracks. Do not litter.
8. Participate in preservation of greenery by planting, watering and caring for plants.
The Importance of Biodiversity
 Biodiversity is the amount of variety of life on Earth. It is the number of different species of plants,
animals, and microorganisms. It includes organisms from Earth’s vastly different ecosystems,
including deserts, rainforests, coral reefs, grasslands, tundra, and polar ice caps.
 Our biodiversity is very important to the well-being of our planet. Most cultures, at least at some time,
have recognized the importance of conserving natural resources. Many still do, but many do not.
 Biodiversity is important to humans for many reasons. Biodiversity is also considered by many to
have intrinsic value—that is, each species has a value and a right to exist, whether or not it is known
to have value to humans.
 Economic—biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for consumption and production. Many
livelihoods, such as those of farmers, fishers and timber workers, are dependent on biodiversity.
 Ecological life support—biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that supply oxygen, clean
air and water, pollination of plants, pest control, wastewater treatment and many ecosystem services.
 Recreation—many recreational pursuits rely on our unique biodiversity, such as birdwatching,
hiking, camping and fishing. Our tourism industry also depends on biodiversity.
 Scientific—biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data that help us to understand
the natural world and its origins.
Any loss or deterioration in the condition of biodiversity can compromise all the values outlined above and
affect human wellbeing. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005 was the first global effort to examine
links between human wellbeing and biodiversity. The assessment found benefits to societies from biodiversity
in material welfare, security of communities, resilience of local economies, relations among groups in
communities, and human health. It also emphasized the term ‘ecosystem services’ under 4 broad categories
(Morton & Hill 2014).