Fundamentals of Soil

Science
(SST 3005)

Soil formation

Dr. Khairul Hafiz Mohd Yusoff

Pedology/soil science
Email: my_hafiz@upm.edu.my
Phone number: 013-2500 598
Topics

• Weathering process
• Soil forming process
• Soil forming factors
• Soil profile development
 Formation Formation
Elements Minerals Rocks
(Parent
Materials)
• Weathering

• Soil Forming Process

• Soil Forming factors

Soil
Weathering (Luluhawa)
• Rocks /parent materials are disintegrated
(breakdown) and decayed (decomposed) by
weathering to become soil
Rock Weathering Soil

• Weathering:
- Physical weathering
- Mechanical weathering
- biochemical weathering
Pathways of weathering
Weathering - Physical
Physical weathering is the class of processes that causes the
disintegration of rocks without chemical change

• Temperature
• Warm and cold
• Freezing and Thawing
• Pressure release
• Abrasion (movement by)
• Water
• Ice
• Wind
• Plants and Animals
Weathering - Biochemical
A number of plants and animals may
create chemical weathering through
release of acidic compounds, i.e.
moss on roofs is classed as
weathering.

Mineral weathering can also be

initiated and/or accelerated by soil
microorganisms.

Lichens on rocks are thought to

increase chemical weathering rates.
Weathering - Chemical
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often
transforming them when water interaction with minerals to
create various chemical reactions
• Water and dissolution

• Solution = ionization in H2O

NaCl + H2O Na+ + Cl-

Solid Solution

CaCO3 + H2O Ca2+ + CO32-

Solid Solution

CaSO4 + H2O Ca2+ + SO42-

Solid Solution
Weathering - Chemical
• Water and dissolution

Hydrolysis = reaction with H2O

KAlSi3O8 + H2O HAlSi3O8 + K+ + OH-

Solid Solid solution

2HAlSi3O8 + 11H2O Al2O3 + 6H4SiO4

Solid Solid Solution

Fundamental Soil Science (SST3005) 10

Weathering - Chemical
• Water and dissolution

• Hydration = adding H2O

Al2O3 + 3H2O Al2O3.3H2O

2FeO3 + 3H2O 2FeO3.3H2O

CaSO4 + 2H2O CaSO4.2H2O

Weathering - Chemical
• Weathering in acidic solution

• Carboxylic acid

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2
Lime (not soluble)) Solution

❑ organic acid produced during OM decomposition

❑ oxidation of S and N
S H2SO4
NH4+ HNO3

Fundamentals of Soil Science (SST3005)

Weathering - Chemical
• Oxidation and reduction

• oxidation and release of Fe

3MgFeSiO4 + 2H2O H4Mg3Si2O9 + SiO2 + FeO

Olivine Serpentine Fe oxide

FeO + O2 + H2O 4FeOOH

Fe oxide Goetite

Alternate wet/dry = redoximorphic features

red-yellow color
bleach
mottle

Fundamentals of Soil Science (SST3005)

SOIL FORMING
PROCESSES
Soil formation
Group of processes :
• Transformation
• Translocation
• Addition
• Loss

These processes, as influenced by 5 factors, are logical

framework to understand the relationship between a soil and
it environment

What are the material added? What are being translocated

and transformed in the soil profile? What materials are
being/have been lost? How the factors influence these
processes?
Processes of mineral soil horizon formation

A. Additions - H2O, organic matter, air, soil particles,

salt

B. Losses - H2O, organic matter, CO2 , nutrients by

plant removal

C. Transformations - Changes to soil structure,

development of clay minerals, weathering of
minerals to elements, chemical reactions.

D. Translocations - movement from one horizon to another

of O.M. Clay, Water, Iron, & Nutrients in colloidal
size, (very small particles) clay films on peds are
evidence of this translocation = clay (film) coating
Additions - H2O, organic matter, air, soil particles, salt

Organic matter
addition

Salt addition
Losses - H2O, organic matter, CO2 , nutrients by plant
removal

Crop
harvesting

Soil erosion remove

organic matter
Transformations - Changes to soil structure, development of
clay minerals, weathering of minerals to elements, chemical
reactions.

Mineral weathering transform

primary mineral into
secondary mineral

Soil structure
formation
Translocations - movement from one horizon to another of
O.M. Clay, Water, Iron, & Nutrients

Translocation of
materials

o organic matter
o Salt / lime
o Clay
Translocation
Translocation
of organic
of clay
matter
Soil Development
Soil and Regolith

A Soil = weathered regolith

Soil
B Solum

C
Saprolite
Regolith = unconsolidated
material on rock
Rock
bedrockFundamental Soil Science (SST3005)
Factors of soil formation
• Dokuchaev, the famous Russian scientist
showed that soils do not occur by chance but
they usually form a pattern in the landscape.
• Furthermore he firmly established that they
developed as a result of the interplay of five
factors
Time Parent material

SOIL
Topography Climate

Organisms
1. Parent material
• Jenny (1941) defines parent material
as the “initial state of the soil system”.
• Parent material are made up of
mineral material or organic matter or
mixture of both.
• The most important properties of
mineral parent material are their
chemical and mineralogical
properties.
1. Parent material
• Residual P. M – Soils formed from rocks. In
Malaysia we have the followings:
• Sandstone
• Shale
• Basalt
• Granite

27
Transported parent material

• Water - River = Alluvium

• Wind - eolian = sand or silt (loess)

• Gravity = colluvium

• Ice = Glacial Drift – all materials

transported by ice or results of
glacier activities.

28
Layered parent material
• Deposition by Water at different period of
times
Outwash - often stratified sand or sand
and gravel
Lacustrine – lake sediment - clay or silt texture –
fine sediment – flat terrain, former lake bed.

Beach Ridge Lake Plain

1(1) Chemical and mineralogical composition of
parent material
• The minerals occurring in rock such
as granite, basalt, gneiss and schist
(primary mineral).
• In the soil, these minerals are
decomposed to form secondary
minerals, particularly the clay
minerals.
• Generally, minerals can be devided
into non-silicates and silicates.
1(1) Chemical and mineralogical composition of
parent material
• Different parent materials have different
texture and elemental content
• Upon weathering, different parent
materials will form different soil types
• Soils formed will be different in
- Texture
- Colour
- Fertility
- Drainage
- Ability to support plant growth
2. Climate
• Climate is the principal factor
governing the type and rate of soil
formation as well as being the main
agent determining the distribution of
vegetation.
a. Temperature
b. Moisture
2. Climate
Temperature
- Warm = fast weathering and soil formation
- Cold = Slow --> Soil development
Precipitation – high rainfall = high weathering & leaching

Leaching index =
Precipitation – Evapotraspiration = effective rainfall that
can cause leaching in soil.
2(a) Temperature
• Atmospheric and soil temperature
variations are the most important
manifestations of the solar energy
reaching the surface of the earth.
• A part of which is absorbed and
converted into heat in the atmosphere
and soil while the remainder is reflected
back.
• Cloudiness, humidity, dust particles and
pollution absorb radiation thereby
reducing the amount reaching the
earth’s surface.
 2(a) Temperature

Fig: Utilisation of solar radiation reaching the earth.

2(a) Temperature
• The main effect of temperature on soils
is to influence the rate of soil formation.
- for every 10oC rise in temperature, the
chemical reaction increases by a factor or
two.
- rate of biological activity within the soil
and the breakdown of organic matter are
also increased by a rise in temperature.
• Development of vegetation also can
affected by soil temperature.
-In cool climates, plants become active at
5oC and reach maximum activity at 20oC.
2(b) Moisture
• The differentiation of soil horizons is
determined very largely by the
movement of moisture.
• The moisture entering the soil is
derived mainly from precipitation as
rain and snow.
• Some moisture takes part in a
number of chemical reactions in the
soil and some is retained. By far the
greatest amount is lost through
drainage or by evapotranspiration.
2(b) Moisture

Fig: the moisture cycle under humid conditions.

2(b) Moisture
• The intensity of precipitation varies from
place to place over the earth's surface.
- Light rain that hardly enter the soil are
quickly lost by evaporation.
- Heavy showers may cause moisture to
accumulate at the surface particularly on
clay soils leading to run off and creating an
erosion hazard.
• Precipitation can be intercepted by the
foliage of vegetation and is later lost by
evaporation.
2(b) Moisture

Fig: The fate of moisture falling on the surface under a number different climatic
conditions.
2(b) Moisture
3. Organisms
• Nearly every organism living on the
surface of the earth or in the soil
affects the development of soils in
one way or another.
• The organisms can be considered
under the following headings:
a. Higher plants
b. Vertebrates
c. Microorganism
d. Mesofauna
3(a) Plants
• Influences soil in many way.
• The greatest contributions of higher
plants is through the addition of
organic matter or litter to surface.
• Plants extract water and nutrients
from the soil and under natural
conditions return most of the nutrients
to the surface in their litter which
decomposes and release them.
• Vegetation – Addition of
Organic Matter (OM).
• Prairie ~ OM added to the
top 60 cm because of the
fibrous nature of grass roots

Ap

AB

Bg

46
3(b) Vertebrates
• A few mammals including rabbits,
moles and the prairie dog burrow
deeply into the soil causing
considerable mixing, often bringing
subsoil to the surface.
• Uncontrolled grazing by animals such
as goats will devour the vegetation
and leave the surface bare for
erosion.
3(c) Microorganisms
• A predominant microorganisms are
bacteria, actinomycetes, algae and
fungi.
• The bacteria are the smallest and
most numerous of free-living
organisms in the soil. They number
several million per gram with live
weight of 1000-6000 kg/ha in the top
15 cm.
• Divided into two groups, the
heterotrophs and the autotrophs.
3(c) Microorganisms
• Heterotrophs are responsible for the
decomposition of the litter.
• Autotrophs are those that derive their
energy from a variety of oxidation
processes including the oxidation of
ammonia to nitrites, nitrites to nitrates
and many more.
3(d) Mesofauna
• This group include earthworms, nematodes,
mites, springtails, millipedes, some gastropods
and many insects, particularly termites.
• Their distribution is determined almost entirely
by their food supply.
• Mesofauna require an aerobic environment
with conditions around neutrally but many can
live in either acid or alkaline soils.
• Many earthworms, termites and millipedes
ingest both mineral and organic matter and as
sequence they produce faecal material which
is a homogenous blend of these two
substances.
Factors of Soil Formation - organism

o Decomposition
o Nutrient cycling
o Soil mixing
o Pores and tunnels
o Fertility (waste)
o O2 and CO2 ratio
o Organisms Population
 Good topsoil

Moderate topsoil

Poor topsoil
3(d) Topography
• Catena – A series of
soils with different
horizon due to
differences in depth to
water table.
• Drainage class
• Well drained
• Moderately well drained
• Somewhat poorly drained
• Poorly drained
Catena – Natural Soil Drainage Classes
NOTE: Natural drainage refers to depth to water
table not permeability.

Natural Soil Drainage Classes :

• Well Drained - mottles begin > 130 cm.
• Moderately well drained - mottles > 100 cm.
• Somewhat poorly drained
- mottles > 50 cm
• Poorly drained
- dark surface soil
- gray colors in subsoil below
surface (red mottles)

55
Drainage classes

Grayish
mottles
Grayish mottles in
Browinish B
Grayish color under A
mottles > 1 meter Somewhat
Moderately Poorly drained
Well drained well drained. Poorly drained
Topography – erosion and deposition

summit

shoulder

Back slope

Foot slope
Summit and backslope
• Summit has minimal
erosion and maximum soil
development (rapid
horizonation)
• Backslope same as
summit except when
slope > 20%.
Shoulder
Most rapid erosion – least water percolation – highest
surface runoff – least soil development.

Ap

Bw

Bk

BC

C
Foot Slope
• Deposition of material from upslope – near to water
table - high leaching from upland water and rainfall.

Ap

AB
Btg

WATER
Topography Aspect
• Direction the slope faces -
important when slope is >
than 10 %.

• North Slope 1 2
colder soils, less evaporation , 1
less erosion ~ thus more soil
development

• South Slope 2
warmer soils, more evaporation,
more erosion ~ thus less soil
development.
Topography Aspect
• Direction the slope faces the sun
• Important when slope > 10 %
A
E

Bt
C

A
Bw
C

62
What do we call the transported parent material here ??
 Factors of soil formation - Time

• Vegetation and Climate act upon Parent Materials on a

Topography in the course of TIME.

• AGE of a soil is determined by its development and

not the number of years it has been “borned”.

• How long it takes for a soil to become “old” depends on

the intensity of soil forming processes or the intensity
of the influence of the other 4 factors.
 Soil Age

A • Juvana = A
• Young =
C Bw

Old
MATURE
MATURE = “Senile” C
A A
E E A

Bt1
Bt Box1

C Bt2
Box2
Factors that slow down Soil Profile Development
• Low rainfall • Low moisture
• High Lime Content • High Quartz content
• High Clay Content • Hard Rock
• Steep slope • High Water Table
• Cold Temperature • Continuous Deposition
• Destructive erosion • Mixed by Animals

• Climate
– Low rainfall • Biota
– Mixing by animals and human
– Low Moisture
– Cold Temperature
What happen to soil with TIME

• Loss of nutrients (bases) = low pH or soil become

more acidic

• Increase in Fe or soil becomes redder

• Increase in clay or older soil has higher clay content

• Deeper weathering into parent materials

Young soil

Can be river or
marine
alluvium
or
colluvium
Matured soils
Old soils

70
Terra Preta Brazil

Old soil made fertile by

adding of charcoal
for thousand of years (by
Red Indians of Amazon
forest areas

Old soils Old soils

Soil Profile
consist of characterized layer called HORIZON

A
E soil
B
Profile development
Base rock
C

R
Soil Profile

Examples of
Soil horizons
Soil Profile

Bw
E

BE

Btb

C
Naming soil horizons
• Soil horizons (layers in
soil) are named so that
differences between soil
can be identified.

• Naming soil horizons need

practice.

Fundamental Soil Science (SST3005) 75

 Soil horizon

o A layer of soil, approximately

parallel to the surface

o Having distinct characteristics

produced by soil forming processes.

o Used to classify the soil and make

interpretations
 Soil horizon nomenclature
o Use CAPITAL letters to identify master horizon
( O, A, E, B, C, R ).

o Use suffixes (lowercase letters) to denote additional

characteristics or features of the horizon:

Ap – plowed A horizon
Bg – Gleyed B horizon

C2d- densed C horizon, the 2 tells

us that the C horizon is a
different deposit that the B.
 O - Horizon
For Organic soils
Organic layers of decaying plant and
animal tissue (must be greater than 12
– 18% organic carbon, excluding live Oi
roots) and horizon thickness > 50cm

Oi – Fibric Oe
≥ ¾ vol. fibers after rubbing
Oa
Oe --Hemic
1/3 – 2/3 vol. fibers after rubbing

Oa – Sapric Alluvium
clay
< 1/6 vol. fibers after rubbing
For mineral soils, O horizon can be written as:

O horizon – for thin organic layer

O1
O1, O2 - for thicker
organic layers O2
 A – Horizons (topsoil)
Mineral horizon at or near the
surface in which an accumulation
of humified organic matter is
mixed with the mineral material

A - undisturbed A horizon
Ap - plowed A horizon
Ab - buried A horizon
 E – Horizons

Eluvial (E) horizons:

Mineral horizon which the main

feature is loss of silicate clay,
iron, aluminum.
O Horizon

A Horizon

E Horizon

Bhir Horizon Spodic Horizon

C Horizon
 B – Horizons (subsoil)
Mineral horizon with evidence
of pedogenesis or illuviation
(movement into the horizon)

Bw – weakly color or structure

Bhs – Accumulation of illuvial
organic matter-sesquioxide
complexes.
Bt – accumulation of clay
 B – Horizons (cont.)
Bhsm – Strong pedogenic
cementation of Bhs horizon

Bg or BG – Strong gleying –
gray colors due to prolong
saturation/reduction.
 C – Horizon/layers (substratum)
o The weathered geological
material the soil is formed in.
Shows little or no sign of soil
formation
o Called saprolite Soil

Cd – dense layer
Saprolite
2C – shows a discontinuity C Horizon
with solum

Rocks
 R – Horizons (layers)

◼ Soil

◼ Saprolite is a C horizon

◼ Hard bedrock
 Horizon measurements
◼ Record upper and lower soil
boundary (horizons)

◼ Depends on the use of the soil

description:
Soil survey : 0 datum is
ground surface
 Describing horizons
◼ Transitional Horizon – dominated by properties of one
master but some properties of other –
Example
AB (mostly A but some properties of B)
EB (mostly E but some properties of B)
BC (mostly B but some properties of C)

or Combination of distinct properties of two master

horizon (separated by a / )
A/E, B/E, B/C.
 Describing soil profile
-Locate horizon breaks, determine type of
horizon (learn definition)

-No set number of horizons in a pedon

-For each horizon record the depth, color,

texture, redox, structure, consistency, rock, etc.

-Note variability between horizons

Soil horizon identification and description – some soil horizons are
very distinct while others look very homogenous
Subscripts - all B horizons have a subscript, most
transition horizons do not.
• * a - sapric - organic soils - well decomposed
• * b - buried soil horizon
• d - dense - geogenic soil material
• * e - hemic - moderate. decomposition - organic soil
• f - frozen soil - permanently frozen, permafrost
• * g - gleyed soil - gray color due to low O2 - reduction
of Fe
• * h - accumulation of humus - O.M. other than in the A
or O horizons
• * i - fibric - organic - non-decomposed
• * k - accumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
• * m - cementation - hard - indurated
Fundamental Soil Science (SST3005) 91
Subscripts cont.
n - sodium accumulation
* p - plowing - only used with A horizon
q - silica accumulation - very weathered or old soil
* r - soft rock - used with C or Cr
* s - sesquioxides (Fe2O3) accumulation of Fe and
Al - red color
* t - clay accumulation - clay films
* w – weak color or structure development (Bw)
x - Fragipan - hard, dense layer that developed with
time
y - gypsum accumulation (CaSO4)
z - salts more soluble than gypsum (KCL - NaCl - NaSO4)
Stone line