Lecture 3 / 4 Natural Landscape Process

LECTURE 3/4 Natural Landscape Process

DEFINITIONS, KEY WORDS

Landforms

Landforms are the individual topographic features or “shapes and forms” exposed on the earth’s
surface.

They vary in size and shape and include features such as small creeks, deltas, sand dunes, or large
features such as the mountains, rivers and plateaus.

They develop over a range of different time-scales. Some landforms develop rather quickly (over a few
minutes), such as a landslide, while others may involve millions of years to form, such as a mountain
ranges.

Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the process-based study of landforms.

Geo - morph - ology originates from Greek:

Geo meaning the “Earth”, morph meaning its “form”, and ology refers to “the study of”.

Scientists who study landforms are Geomorphologists.

It defines the processes and conditions that influence landform development, and the physical,
morphological, and structural characteristics of landforms.

PROCESS OF LANDSCAPE FORMATION: GEOLOGICAL PROCESS, SOIL FORMING PROCESS

GEOLOGICAL PROCESS

The processes by which rocks are formed, differentiated, eroded, and deposited to be reformed again
into rocks.

• Earth formed 4.7 billion years ago.

• Current landforms are often millions of years old.

• Primary processes responsible for most topographic features: Wind, Waves, Chemical Dissolution,
Mass Wasting, Groundwater Movement, Surface Water Flow, Glacial Action, Tectonics And
Volcanism.

• Destructive Processes
• Constructive Processes

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DESTRUCTIVE PROCESSES

• They create landforms through weathering and erosion of surface materials facilitated by water,
wind, ice, and gravity.

• Landforms formed by destructive processes include river and stream valleys, waterfalls, glacial
valleys, coastal cliffs, and wave-cut scarps.

Weathering

Disintegration and decomposition of rock at or near the earth’s surface by mechanical, chemical, or
biological weathering processes.

Erosion

The removal and transportation of weathered or un-weathered materials by water, wind, ice, and
gravity.

CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSES

• It include tectonic and depositional processes that are responsible for physically building or
constructing certain landforms.

Tectonic landforms

• Created by massive earth movements due to tectonic and volcanic activity, and include
landforms such as Mountains, Rift Valleys, Volcanoes, and Intrusive Igneous Landforms.

Depositional Landforms

• Produced from the deposition of weathered and eroded surface materials.

• Examples:

Beaches, Barrier Islands, Spits, Deltas, Flood Plains, Salt Domes, Sand Dunes, and Glacial
Deposits.

Glacial Deposits

• Glaciers are effective for landscape change.

• The gradual movement of ice down a valley causes abrasion and plucking of the underlying rock.

• Abrasion produces fine sediments.

• The debris transported by the glacier is termed as glacial deposit or moraine.

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FORMATION of ROCKS

Igneous Rocks

• Formed by cooling & solidification of molten rock

 Underground molten rock is magma

• Above ground molten rock is lava

Composition of magma / lava + cooling rate determines the minerals that form

Eg: Granite, basalt, pumice, obsidian

Sedimentary Rocks

Composed of particles of gravel, sand, silt & clay

• Pressure & cementing processes cause rocks to form:

Sand forms sandstone

Silt & clay form shale or siltstone

Organic materials form limestone and coal

Metamorphic Rocks

• Formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks, by earth forces that produce heat, pressure, or
chemical reactions.

- Shale becomes slate

- Limestone can become marble

- Granite may become gneiss

SOIL FORMING PROCESS

Soil:

Loose surface of the earth as distinguished from solid bedrock, that nourishes and supports plant life.

Composed of: Organic Material + Inorganic (Mineral) Material + Water + Air

Components of Soil:

Inorganic Matter

Rock slowly broken down into small particles

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Organic Matter

• Decayed plants and animals

• Two types

- Original tissue—still recognizable-twigs and leaves on forest floor

- Humus—matter is too decomposed and unrecognizable, gives rich brown color to soil

• Only about 5% of most soils

• Small portion but very important

Importance of Organic Matter

• Source of plant nutrients

• Stores soil water

• Provides food / energy for soil microorganisms

• Makes soil more suitable for farming

• Provides a cementing or adhesive effect to the soil

• Organic matter makes life possible by supporting ecosystem

The Soil Profile

• A soil profile is a vertical cross section of a soil. It is divided into a number of distinct layers,
referred to as horizons.

• The presence or absence of particular horizons allows experts to classify the soil.

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Soil Forming Process:

• The thin layer of soil that covers the terrestrial portions of the earth controls the existence and
distribution of life on its surface.

• The process by which soil is formed consists of mechanical and chemical weathering, and of a non-
biotic and biotic activities.

• General rule: Older the soil, more nutritious than newer soil.

• Soil takes thousands of years to form through the process of weathering of rocks and organic matter.

• In the initial phases of soil formation, differential expansion and contraction (because of
temperature changes) cause fissures to develop in rocks. The water that enters these fissures on
freezing causes breakage. The C horizon is thus formed followed by A and B horizons.

Soil Forms by 4 basic Processes 1. Addition 2. Losses 3. Translocation 4. Transformation

1. Addition

Addition of material to the developing soil profile from outside sources:

• Organic matter added from leaves and animal wastes

• Dust from the atmosphere adds minerals

• Rain adds water

• Soluble salts added from groundwater

2. Losses

Loss of material from the soil profile by leaching, erosion of surface material, or other forms of
removal (often result in the accumulation of material in a particular horizon).

• Water by evaporation into air

• Carbon by formation of CO2

• Soil by erosion or washed away in storms

• Energy by radiation

• Nutrients and minerals leach into ground water or absorbed by plants

3. Translocation

Translocation (transportation) of inorganic and organic materials from one horizon to another,
either up or down.

• Gravity pulls water from top to bottom

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• Evaporation draws minerals up from bottom

• Soil organisms may carry materials in any direction

4. Transformation

Transformation of soil constituents from one form to another, such as:

• Through mineral weathering

• Decomposition/ breakdown of organic matter

• Reduction of particle size by weathering

Soil Forming Factors : Soils develop basically as a result of the interplay of 5 factors:

i. Parent Material ii. Climate iii. Organisms iv. Topography v. Time

i. Parent Material

The underlying bedrock from which the soil horizons.

Soil’s structure and mineral content depends a lot on the underlying parent material.

Parent Material could be:

• Minerals And Rocks

• Glacial Deposits

• Alluvial And Marine Deposits

• Organic Deposits

The parent material can influence the soil in number of ways: Colour, Texture, Structure, Mineral
Composition, Permeability/ Drainage.

ii. Climate

• This is probably the most important factor (soils produced from the same parent material under
different climates contrast).

• Climate governs the rate and type of soil formation and is also the main determinant of
vegetation distribution.

• Soil climate has two major components: Moisture (precipitation) and Temperature.

- When Precipitation exceeds evaporation, leaching (water moving downward to bedrock) of

the soil will occur.
- Temperature determines the rate of reactions: Chemical and Biological Decay and so has an
influence on weathering and humification.

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Fluctuations in temperature increase physical weathering of rocks, thus aiding the soil forming
process.

iii. Organisms (Flora, Fauna, Micro Organisms)

• Organisms influencing soil development range form microscopic bacteria to large animals
including man.

• Microorganisms can facilitate chemical reactions or excrete organic substances to improve

infiltration of water in the soil.

• Micro organisms such as bacteria and fungi assist in the decomposition of plant litter.

• This litter is mixed into the soil by macro organisms (soil animals) such as worms and beetles.

• The nature of the soil humus is determined by the vegetation cover and resultant litter inputs.

• Roots contribute dead roots to the soil, bind soil particles together and can redistribute and
compress soil.

iv. Topography

SLOPE and ASPECT are two features of topography that affect soil formation.

• Slope refers to steepness (in degrees) from horizontal and aspect is the direction the slope faces
relative to the sun (compass direction).

• The steepness of the slope affects the amount of deposition or erosion of soil material.

• A soil that is level is the most developed as there is no loss or gain of material to slow the soil
forming process.

• The aspect of the slope affects the amount of water that moves through the soil.

• Eg: The north side tends to have more water because of less evaporation and therefore support
suitable vegetation.

The soil chemical processes are slowed on the north aspect because of the colder soil
temperatures.

A soil with a southern aspect tends to have grass vegetation, warmer soil temperatures,
and more evaporation.

v. Time

Vegetation and climate act on parent material and topography over time.

The age of a soil is determined by development and not chronological age.

Degree of aging depends on intensity of the other four soil forming factors.

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Factors that slow the soil formation include:

High lime content in parent material, high quartz content in parent material, high clay content in
parent material, hard rock parent material (resistant to weathering), low rainfall, low humidity, cold
temperature, steep slopes, high water table, severe erosion etc.

SOME ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGIES:

WEATHERING

Break down of rocks & minerals which occur due to:

• Temperature changes

• Water action

• Plant roots

• Ice expansion

• Mechanical grinding

HUMIFICATION

The breakdown of plant remains leading to the formation of different types of humus.

DECOMPOSITION

The breakdown of plant derived material into its simpler organic constituents. This is accomplished by
enzymes, earthworms, mites and other organisms.

LEACHING

Whenever precipitation exceeds evaporation and there is free downward movement of water through
the soil pore system, soluble minerals are moved down the soil profile.

Reverse is Capillary Action.

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