HABITATINTL. Vol. 7. No. 314. pp. 147-163, 1983. 0197-3975183 $3.00 + 0.

00
Printed in Great Britain. Pergamon Press Ltd.

Planning Principles of
Arid-zone Settlement

GIDEON GOLANY
University of Pennsylvania, USA

INTRODUCTION

Planning settlements in arid zones is a relatively new procedure which has become
important because of increasing population and urban growth in the world, the
search for new regions for expanding settlements and the need for food produc-
tion and exploitation of natural resources. Desertification has also been increasing
the amount of desert area. Accordingly, it becomes essential for policy-makers,
planners-designers and developers to find special systems and theories for arid-
zone settlement planning which go beyond the scale of one or two houses.
Our understanding is that the unique climatic conditions of the arid zone
require special methods of solving problems posed by the aridity. Moreover, solu-
tions cannot be imported but rather must be innovated to meet the special
arid area in general and the given site in particular.
In general, we will find three types of arid zones on the globe: (1) the hot,
arid zone that is typical of the Middle East, Egypt and North Africa, Saudi Arabia
and the Fertile Crescent; (2) the cold, arid zone of the upland hinterland of the
continents which is blocked by high mountains from the sea, including central
Asia, central Turkey, and Iran; (3) the very cold, dry climate such as that of the
northern polar region. Our discussion in this paper is focused on the first type, the
hot, dry climate, although some of the solutions offered here may also be applic-
able to the other two types of arid-zone climate.
The hot, dry climate is characterised by a low average precipitation over the
year which does not support dry farming and low humidity with an evaporation
rate that exceeds the precipitation. The little rain that does fall, is torrential,
turbulent, brief, sparse, and often causes floods. Because of the short duration of
the rain, it does not have time to seep into the ground. These conditions decrease
the water table potential and intensify soil erosion and the consequent tendency
for soil to be carried by the winds and/or rain. This absence of soil and vegetation
also increases the stress of the environment and decreases the potentialities of the
region. In this definition we should also include the existence of intense solar
energy, especially in the afternoons, and the great amplitude between high day
temperature and low night temperature.
More than any other area, an arid zone has a delicately balanced ecosystem.
The aridity of the climate, the extremes in temperature and the scarcity of water
have linked all creatures and natural forms in a state of ever-adapting equilibrium.
All components of the ecological system are constantly poised at the threshold
of survival and are in a state of balance and dependency.

147
148 Gideon Golary

In the more temperate areas we have used and abused soil throughout the
history of settlements. We have destroyed desert and near desert areas as well.
Further, we have irreversibly urbanised good agricultural land in temperate and
arid areas. Now there are pressures to provide areas for expansion, and we need
food for a rapidly growing population. Moderately cool, arid zones have a particu-
larly healthy climate. With the new innovative water-saving irrigation technology
and with the potentialities of water desalinisation, arid zones become promising
areas for urbanisation and food production. Further, we urban and regional
planners have not yet made an extensive use of the knowledge which the ancient
arid-zone civilisations have introduced. The validity of such lessons can be re-
vealed when they are combined with our modern technology. They can bring a
new dimension to solving many of the problems of living in arid zones,
This paper is concerned with presenting the basic principles of the planning
process of urban and rural development in arid zones. These principles are pri-
marily applicable to virgin areas of the arid zone, although they may be imple-
mented in a sparsely populated region, too. It is essential that there be a central-
ised authority -- perhaps a regional government - to formulate and crystallise
a clear policy for regional development of arid lands.

LIMITATIONS AND POTENTIALITIES

Study of tlte imitations and the potentialities of arid zones would lead one
quickly to the conclusion that a sophisticated planning process and an innovative
and unique solution to the problems are required. The process is a multi-faceted
one: and unlike the traditional approach, it must be comprehensive. Thus, our
study should include the social, economic, physical, transportation, and govern-
ance as well as other aspects. Table 1 summarises most of the limitations and the
potentialities of an arid zone.

PLANNERS’ ASSIGNMENT

(1) Planning must be comprehensive.

(2) Adaptability of the city and acc~matisation of the people to the unique
env~oIlment are extremely important in all stages of the planning process.
(3) Special norms and tools must be used. No planning solution or theory
should be imported for application without careful review and examination.
(4) Planning and development must be innovative in all its facets. Sophisticated
technology and systems are required.
(5) Since the ecosystem is naturally poised at the threshold of existence,
planners must be extremely cautious about disturbing the regional equilibrium,
overusing local resources, or importing outside resources.
(6) A thorough and comprehensive study must be made concerning the limit-
ations and the potentialities of the macroregion and the microregion of the new
site and their impacts on each other. Water resources, climatic constraints, and
soil capabilities, for example, are of great importance.

PLANNING PRINCIPLES IN ARID ZONES

Our research has led us to the conclusion that there are at least eight basic princi-
ples to consider when planning and developing an arid zone.
(1) Site selection criteria and method.
(2) Regional clustering pattern of settlements.
 P~~~ln~ngPrinciples of Arid-zone Settlement 149

(3) folio-econami~ considerations.

(4) Role of public and private investment.
(5) Subterranean placement.
(6) Compact settlement form.
(7) Urban forms and configurations.
(8) Land uses.

Settlement site selection

Site selection is mostly an irreversible decision once the site is selected and
developed. Probably, it is the most crucial decision of the planning and develop-
ment process with a historical implication as well as economic, social, health,
energy and other far-roaching effects. It must be a decision that is made with a
full, comprehensive understanding of its present and its future effects. As such,
it should be an imaginative decision made by searching the brains of professionals.
Yet, compromise and practicality are both required at the same time. The limit-
ation of resources, the delicate balance of the ecology, and the climatic stress and
its consequences make site selection a very critical process in arid zones.
To select such a site, the planners must adopt a comprehensive, balanced,
quantitative, rational and sophisticated method and use it efficiently. The plan-
ners must analyse all the important physical criteria which apply to an arid zone
including elevation, orientation, water resources, accessibility, and land form and
soil. The actual method for site selection which the author recommends is the
method for rating regional cells (the MRRC), This comprehensive quantitative and
systematic procedure has been thoroughly discussed by the author.’

Elevation. This factor has an impact on the degree of relative humidity which
in turn has effects on ambient air. In general, the higher the elevation, the greater
the relative humidity and the better the comfort index will be, thus improving
the feeling of climatic comfort.
Ventilation is more available and frequent at the higher elevations than in the
lowland. Although ventilation, in general, is not as crucial in a hot, dry climate as
it is in the hot, humid climate, we could state that generally winds at the higher
elevations are cooler than those in the lowlands under the same conditions.
Elevation is related to:
(a) air temperature (every descending wind gains 1°C for every 100 m);
(b) extent of relative humidity;
(c) ventilation and, therefore, to heat exchange, inversion, and pollution;
(d) runoff and erosion;
(e) floods;
(f) solar radiation and reflection;
(g) potential for precipitation.

r “A Quantitative Method For Site Sekxtion of a New Town’“, paper presented at the ~nt~rn~~t~~~~ Con-
gress on New Towns: I-low fo &did a Xew Town, Tehran, Iran, 9-15 December 1977 (69 pp.); ‘*A Quanti-
tative Method for Site Selection of a Regional Shopping Centre’“, Proceedings of the hrterrzatior& Confer-
ence on MathematicalModeling, St. Louis, Missouri, 29 August-l September 1977 (25 pp.); “A Quantitative
Method for Land-use Planning”, International Technicul Cooperation Centre Review, Vol. 6, No. 2 (22), pp.
1 l-37, April 1977: “Site Selection: Process, Criteria and Method”, New-Town PEarming: Principles andPruc-
tice, C. Golany (Editor), pp. 60-97, Wiley, New York, 1976; New Community for Virginia in- the Roanoke
Valley: Site Selectiovr and Feasibility Study. Gideon Golanv Associates, State College. Pennsylvania. January
197i; “Site Selectionand Feasibility-Study! a New Town for Koanoke Valley”, &-a&y for New Community
Development in the U&ted States, G. Golany (Editor), pp. 129-154, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross,
Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, 1975.
 Table 1. The arid-zone stressful climate: its impacts and/or methods of coping

Characteristic Impact Advantages and/or methods of coping

Intense solar radiation (especially Reduction or elimination of outdoor social activities, so that Microclimate created within the city (domed areas,
in p.m. hours) indoor familial and social activities arc encouraged narrow, winding alleys; specially designed houses)
Reduction in the productivity of labour Recreation for winter and retirement communities
Physiological discomfort during outdoor movement Work during early a.m. and in later p.m.
Maximally integrated land-use pattern
Avoidance of large open spaces within the city where
hot air can collect during the day
Close proximity of urban services used every day
Compact structures and forms
Use of subterranean space for living and working
Ample shaded public spaces
Rapid decay of food Construction of refrigerated storage and of food-
dehydrating industries
Many cloudless days that provide large quantities of solar energy Construction of devices to use solar energy
Year-round agricultural production Economically successful agricultural communities
with special adaptations to grow and market pro-
duce out of its usual season
Development of greenhouse agriculture
High amplitude in temperature between Problems in physiologically adapting to climatic extremes that Design and construction of special dcviccs for energy
day and night limit the population to certain groups storage and temperature exchange between day
and night
Discomfort and need for appropriate clothes and shelters Design of shelters with tempered microclimates using
natural or artificial systems
lntense wind and turbulence Wind catchment system for house ventilation
Potential wind energy Devices for generating energy from winds
 Table 1 (continued)

Characteristic Impact Advantages and/or methods of coping

Lack of vegetative cover Increased radiation and reflection and intense negative Selection and cultivation of xerophytes that require
impact of albedo little or no water
Use of xerophytes (that do not require water) as
groundcover for open urban space 2
Selection of light colours for every open space %
Creation of dust storms Reduction of cultivated areas close to urban residences g.
and open space within the urban conglomerate
Increased boredom and feelings of isolation Green zones of plants around and within the settle- 5
ment to provide shade and to stabilise soil ?
Dryness (low humidity and deficit Negative impact on physiology of human beings, flora, Little passive open urban space -G
between extremely high evapor- and fauna Special care for skin and eyes 5
ation and rare precipitation) Thirst Humidification of space within built-up structures, e
Requirement for physiological adaptation and limit of especially those for public gatherings b
$
population to certain groups Recreation centres for asthmatic people
Clear skies for most of the year Development of excellent astronomical observatories 2
Good, relatively safe air navigation 2
High evaporation from irrigated soil and quick salinisation Artificial fertilisation
of intensely irrigated land so that agricultural production
falters
Consumption of water Development of recycling systems for used water
Use of imported water possibly mixed with water
tapped from local aquifers
Avoidance of developing industries that consume large
quantities of water
Need for special nonaqueous chemical treatment of
solid waste
Eolian erosion; abrasion of structures and people Landscaping with xerophytes
 Urientutim. The degree of exposure to solar radiation is important in establish-
ing the various land uses in a settlement and to detailing the house designs.
Slopes facing south have more intensive radiation than those facing east or west.
Those slopes facing north enjoy more shading, yet there is enough light.
Orientation is related to:
(a} exposure to solar radiation;
(b) ventilation and heat exchange;
(c) view and landscape;
(d) refative humidity as related to location near a water body (natural or man-
made pond, the sea), if prevailing winds blow across the water toward the
city (house).
Water remurces. This is the most crucial element in settlement site selection,
The quality, quantity and proximity of the supply is essential. Most local re-
sources in an arid land have a high percentage of salt and are brackish.
Considerations of water resources may include:
(a} desalination of water to various qualities at an acceptable price for drink-
ing, washing, industry, and agriculture:
(b) ~portation of water insured to last as needed with the least political con-
straints;
(c) mix of imported fresh water with locat brackish water in an acceptable
ratio for the usage;
(d) recycling of water to be consumed in diversified uses such as industry,
agriculture, recreation, as well as landscaping;
(e) elimination or minimisation of introducing water-consuming industry to
the new arid settlement;
(f) control of catchment of all runoff water in the region.
The availability, quantity, quality and cost of water resources for the arid-
zone settlement determine the location, the potential for expansion and the types
of land use in that settlement.

Acce.Wbi&y. Air navigation is most promising in arid zones, and it is more

economica1, efficient and quick for the early stages of a new settlement than
roads which have to be constructed. Transportation and supply by road would
be lengthy as well. Moreover, most of the roads would have to cross wide, dry
riverbeds, and special bridges to accommodate floodtimes would be necessary. The
source of road building materials has to be considered in order to make constmc-
tion economically feasible.

Larrd fom and soil. This is an important subject for the arid-zone city- Com-
mon and special land forms in the arid zone are: Piedmont, playa, alluvial fan,
flood plain, coastal plain, eolian (such as loess and sand dunes), and mesa. Each
one of these land forms has its own nature and type of soil.’
fn selecting the site we should consider in addition to land form:
(a) stability of the soil under weather changes, aerodynamics of wind move-
ment, runoff, landslide, erosion intensity and the structure of the soil
and its coverage;
(b) sufficient and suitable land consecutively placed for the land uses of the
settlement and for its future expansion.

~e~~o~~~~l~~~~~~~~g
~~~~e~~of s~tt~e~~nts
Contrary to most existing developments or to those undergoing development and
planning in arid zones, the spatial distribution of settlements must be regional
’ “Planning Urban Sites in Arid Zones: the Basic Considerations”, Urban F~a~~ni~~for Arid Zones, G.
Gotony (Editorf, pp. 2 2- 16, Wiley, New York.
 Planning Principles of Arid-zone Settlement 1.53

clustering. This will enable social cohesiveness; provide basic daily needs service-
ably, economically, and viably; maintain administrative efficiency; increase
choice; and increase attractiveness to newcomers. Clustering mandates compre-
hensive planning and well-coordinated regional development. In any case, settle-
ment planning in arid zones should be primarily regional and not local alone.
Moreover, local planning cannot be truly viable without regional planning and
development.

Efficiency. Early development of a single settlement usually does not necessi-

tate provision of advanced educational services such as a high school. Public sub-
sidy or bussing long distances may be required. Clustered settlements will ease
such conditions and will avoid economically unnecessary duplication. The same is
true for social services, sports, medical treatment (especially that of gynaecology
or other specialities and for hospitals). Minimal shopping must be possible locally
with transportation provided to regional centres or to cities.

Short infrastructure. Traditionally, the vast area of arid zones has meant
scattered settlements with small populations. Clustered regional distribution
shortens all the infrastructure network including roads and transportation, elec-
tricity, telephone, water supply, and the like.

Self-sufficiency. Regional clustering increases self-sufficiency in economic

as well as in social services. In addition, it enlarges the choices for labour and
employment. In vast empty regions such as high, arid land where distances from
the main sources of supply are relatively far and time consuming, expenditures
for the resources that provide self-sufficiency become almost vital for develop-
ment, for improving the quality of life and for economic success. However, self-
sufficiency must be achieved as early as possible. In practice, the task of providing
self-sufficiency is far beyond the ability of a single settlement.

Agro-urban type. Agro-urban settlements with a specially integrated design

of greenhouses should be included among the settlements in regional clusters.
Such an innovative pattern should increase self-sufficiency by having agricultural
products produced locally, provide local employment, and make comprehensive
economic development viable.

Interurban activities. Interurban economic activities are desirable, and regional

clustering supports this concept immensely. The region when clustered should be
thought of as one cohesive economic and service unit. Thus, each settlement with-
in the unit should be in symbiotic relationship to the whole region, and each will
be supplementing the others economically in services offered rather than dupli-
cating one another.

Isolation. Integration of social services and economic diversification in proxim-

ity to each other in regional clustering minimises the psychological and actual
isolation of each of the settlements. Also, such a pattern improves the national
image of each of the settlements in contrast to the negative image developed for
a single, isolated, and small settlement.

Service improvement. Inclusion of a large number of settlements in regional

clustering will economically justify the inclusion and will improve the likelihood
of offering such services as an airport, a bus station, a railroad station, frequent
mass transportation, hospital and health services, shopping centres, higher edu-
cation, and social services for various age groups. Regional clustering encourages
diversification of the economic base and increases job opportunities. Therefore,
154 Gideon Golany

this adds to the population’s feeling of satisfaction and decreases the tendency
to stay in the settlement only for a short time, a factor important to the stability
of arid-zone settlements.
In conclusion, regional settlement clustering is an effective planning and de-
velopment tool for arid zones. Although such a pattern is suggested for the settle-
ment of a virgin area, it may also be applicable in a sparsely populated region
where a regional growth centre is required and new urban-rural agriculture is
to be developed.

Socio-economic considerations
On the one hand, the early development of an arid-zone settlement requires
young and motivated persons with a pioneering spirit, visionary attitude, and
devotion; while on the other hand, in the early stages, the population tends to be
transitory and requires incentives in services and in finance to stay. Families with
teenagers are not among the early settlers, and their absence does not encourage
others to join. Planning a high school in the regional clustering settlement pattern
will increase the potential of a more diversified newcomers group joining the
community.

Early social services. Services for education (especially nursery and grammar
schools) and for social, commercial, health and other activities should be provided
at the early stages to increase population stability and the social cohesiveness. All
these services need special land-use space.

Socio-economic isolation. Isolation is a dominant feeling among arid-zone

settlement dwellers in general and is particularly acute at the early stages of
development. This isolated feeling is very strong and persistent in a conventional,
isolated settlement pattern. A regional settlement clustering pattern eases this
feeling of isolation among all age groups, increases social and economic choices
and enriches the society as a whole.

Social characteristics and needs. Because the early population usually is young,
dynamic and informal and there are many single men, it tends to be a group more
receptive to social integration with few feelings of socio-economic distinction.
This characteristic presents a challenge to provide appropriate social and enter-
tainment facilities and housing.

Diversified economic base. Diversification of the economic base of the settle-

ment in an arid zone insures economic continuity and minimises economic failure.
To achieve diversification, the economy should rely on industry, agriculture and
services. Industry should be related to local resources as well as imported raw
materials. Indeed, many of the arid regions may be rich in one or a very few
natural resources. Avoiding reliance on a single economic base, typical of com-
pany towns, is vital if a settlement is to survive depletion of that single resource.
Agriculture, on the other hand is essential for self-containment, and it can be
justified when planned and developed to be highly sophisticated and techno-
logically advanced.
Services not only generate jobs but also keep the machinery of the financial
and industrial system moving and attract outsiders to come and use recreational
facilities offered as an arid-zone resource.
A diversified economic base brings diversified socio-economic groups and
skilled along with unskilled workers. Thus, economic base diversification will
broaden social heterogeneity and enrich social choices. If there is socio-economic
diversification, we can expect a similar diversification of land uses.
 Planning Principles of Arid-zone Settlement 155

In conclusion, this attention to socio-economic considerations leads the author

to recommend that an arid settlement proceeds as a massive, regional, and com-
prehensive development rather than as costly, sporadic, single and disjunctive
settlements.

Role of public and private investment

Allocation of financial resources is an important consideration in the planning and
construction of an arid-zone settlement.
(1) Investment in arid zones is very risky especially in the early stages. The lack
of infrastructure, skilled labour, facilities, etc., makes every investment question-
able economically. In any case, the role of private development is minimal (if any
at all), in the early development. The real involvement of private investors would
come at a later stage of the settlement development, perhaps for further infra-
structure.
(2) Public and nonprofit bodies are the only investors in the early stages of
development. The public body is the likely initiator, policy-maker, planner,
investor and development manager.
(3) Public investment has to be part of a national policy, and there has to be a
national impetus for implementation similar to that for the English new towns,
for example. There can be no immediate economic benefit in mind, although such
investment may bring some benefit at the later stages, especially in the real estate
development stage. In most countries, arid land has been owned publicly.
(4) Public investments would take all direct and indirect forms and channels:
regional and local infrastructure, housing, incentives to individuals and to private
agencies, income and other tax relief or exemption, and all planning and con-
struction.
In conclusion, development of arid zones is a joint public and private venture in
which the public is the pioneer. Private enterprise may have the advantages of
being less bureaucratic and more efficient and prompt, but public investment is
necessary to attract private enterptise. Otherwise, private enterprise will find it
more economically secure to invest in the nonarid, populated areas. Public front-
money is vital when discussing regional urban and rural development. The situ-
ation is different when natural resources are found and the return on private
investment is secure.

Subterranean placement
One of the historical lessons which we can learn from the ancient arid-zone
civilisations is the use of the soil as an effective insulator from outdoor, intense
heat radiation. It has been found that at a depth of 8-l 1 m the soil temperature
is constant at about 48°F (9”C).3
In suggesting subterranean living, we are not suggesting that all the settlement
will go below ground. We are rather suggesting the combination of above- and
below-ground land usage. Manufacturing and other working space, storage and
refrigeration, schools, public gatherings, much of the social activities of different
age groups, shopping, parking and offices can certainly be accommodated in sub-
terranean space. The environment can be attractive - if it is properly planned.
In addition, a house unit can combine the above- and below-ground spaces and

3 “Subterranean Settlements for Arid Zones”, Earth Covered Buildings and Settlements, Frank L. More-
land (Editor), Vol. II, from a Conference “Alternatives in Habitat: the Use of Earth Covered Buildings:
Technical Notes”, 17-19 May 1978, Fort Worth, Texas. Available as Publication CONF-7805138-P2,
from the National Technical Information Service, United States Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal
Road, Springfield, VA 22161, USA.
156 Gideon Golany

treat carefully the uses that would be suitable at different hours of the day and in
different seasons. It should also be mentioned here that use of the subterranean
space in the very dry climate is a much better choice than equivalent use of such
subterranean space in a humid region. Indicated below are some of the advantages
and limitations of subterranean placement of houses and settlements.
A. Protection from climatic stress
(1) Weatherproofing the structure against such extremes as solar radiation,
wind and dust storms, tornadoes, etc., is beneficial: although during dust
storms in deserts, an underground structure can be buried in sand and re-
quires a careful design.
(2) The use of subterranean structures can minimise daily temperature
fluctuation and can make possible a constant temperature. Thus, day tem-
perature will be low when outdoor temperature is high and vice versa at
night.
(3) Underground dwellings will have a moderate microclimate compared to
the macroclimate.
B. Energy costs
(1) The use of underground structures can cut energy consumption through-
out the day and winter season by eliminating air-conditioning and reducing
heating needs.
(2) Such use can cut electrical costs because there is no heat loss through
windows and less fluctuation of daily temperatures.
(3) Underground structures may require more energy for lighting during
both day and night and for ventilation.
C. Construction costs
(1) Savings will result from minimal land cost because of the intensive or
dual use of land at a site.
(2) The costs of design will be low because of the simplicity.
(3) Less materials will be used for exterior finish, windows, or landscaping.
(4) Floors will bear a higher load than above-ground structures.
(5) Costs can be high when the blasting of rock is necessary or substantial
excavation is required. (This can be economical when large-scale develop-
ment justifies the system economically and operationally.)
(6) Extensive excavation may require costly reclamation of surface land to
relit it for agricultural or other uses.
(7) Detailed geological mapping will be required.
D. Maintenance costs
(1) There will be no exterior maintenance costs: painting, repairs, remodel-
ling, window or roof replacement, etc.
(2) Depreciation is minimal because of the minimised influence of weather
on the house’s materials.
(3) There will be less housekeeping since only a minimal amount of outside
dust will enter the house.
(4) An underground structure may require high expenditures for repairs to
utility systems.
E. Land use
(1) Underground construction will save land and make surface ground avail-
able for other uses.
(2) Underground construction will bring land uses into close proximity,
support social interaction, encourage pedestrians, and reduce the use of
motor vehicles.
(3) The use of underground construction will increase settlement density.
F. Environmental impact
(1) Underground construction will have a minimal impact on the environ-
ment and on the ecosystem of the arid zone.
 Planning Principles of Arid-zone Settlement 157

(2) Such construction will reduce outside noise and create a quiet atmos-
phere within the structure which will be soundproofed against the outside
vibration caused by roads, vehicles, or a nearby airport.
(3) Such construction will minimise the impact of the wind.
(4) The strong vibration of railroad systems and other heavy transportation
forms may be transferred across large distances through the ground.
G. Safety
(1) Underground space, especially that used for manufacturing, can accom-
modate large numbers of people during wars or bad weather (blizzards, tor-
nadoes, wind storms).
(2) Nuclear power plants are safer underground than above.
(3) Greater fire resistance and lower insurance rates will result because fire
growth is limited.
(4) Underground construction could be safe in regions subject to earth-
quakes.
(5) There can be evacuation problems if fire occurs.
(6) Underground structures can be subject to flooding when utilities func-
tion inefficiently.
(7) Such structures can be dangerous when located on a geological fault.
H. Health
(1) Underground structures can provide a comfortable climate and an iso-
lated and quiet environment, and therefore be healthy.
(2) Isolation can stimulate creativity, especially among writers and artists.
(3) The risk of dampness does not exist in the arid zone as it does in the
humid zone.
(4) Underground structures require constant ventilation to bring in requisite
fresh air.
(5) There is a danger of feeling trapped, especially when design and constmc-
tion are poor.
(6) Underground structures do no accrue the advantages of sunshine.
(7) Underground structures can be damp when their environs are over-
watered.
(8) Claustrophobia, a pathological fear of confined spaces, can develop
among some people, especially among the elderly.

Compact settlement form

By compactness, we refer to a city that is concentrated and firmly unified with a
consolidation of land uses in a close and tight relationship with each other and
within themselves. Our concept of the compact city is in sharp contrast to that of
many of the contemporary cities that are sprawled and diffused over large areas.
This concept of compactness also has reference to the fragmenting of the planned
arid city into multiple residential-service units interrelated so as to form the city
as a whole. In short, we suggest an arid city which is as closely and firmly united
and held together as the particles of a solid body. A compact city is one in which
the land uses are effectively unified and mixed. The residential area in particular
is arranged in a neat and orderly form in a smaller space than that of a standard
contemporary city with an equivalent population.
Historically, most arid-zone cities have evolved as compact settlements in
practical response to the environmental stress. Indeed, the concept of a compact
city was discussed throughout this century by many planners, architects and
social scientists e.g. Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, and
Soleri.
Compactness, however, does not necessarily need to be associated with high
density, and this author firmly believes that such a compact city can provide
158 Gideon Golany

low-density living. The compact city is one of the most effective, gracious, and
successful settlement forms which has been introduced to us.
Some basic principles for the compact arid-zone settlement are:
(1) Proximity between various land uses.
(2) Integrated land use and minimisation of segregated land use.
(3) Residential clustering.
(4) Circumferential routing of major transportation around residential units
with minimal penetration and crossing.
(5) Residential units with self-sufficient socio-economic services are a physical
entity by themselves, and their aggregation forms the total residential area.
Some advantages of compact, arid cities are that they:
(1) Meet the problems posed by the stressed climate of the arid zone: in-
tense radiation, diurnal changes in temperatures, strong dry, cold or hot winds,
dust storms.
(2) Consume less energy for heating and cooling.
(3) Reduce cost of:
(a) planning, construction, maintenance and operation;
(b) all infrastructure networks: roads, transportation system, telephone and
cable, sewage, water supply, electricity;
(c) tax support from the citizens;
(d) construction of residential area.
(4) Create easy and quick access within itself to facilities.
(5) Save time and energy for commuting.
(6) Make social life pleasant, especially for very young and very elderly resi-
dents.
(7) Destroy less of the delicately sensitive ecosystem of the arid zone.
If this compact city we are suggesting is properly designed, it will not increase
social congestion and noise above that of other contemporary cities. Design of a
compact city to include the subterranean living, for example, makes that city
implementable and efficient and diminishes the negative aspects of social conges-
tion and noise.
We suggest verticality in the compact city, but this does not mean high-rise
buildings above ground, but rather verticality below ground for residential work-
ing, storage and public gathering space.
Finally, we feel that the development of a city as a whole is the most immense
project in space and in size ever created by mankind throughout history. Such a
project is never completed and will continue to evolve in the future. It requires
input from everyone regardless of his intellectual ability, age, race, religion, origin
or any other quality. Planners and social scientists have a challenge to make
optimal use of this evolving process for the happiness of society.
In arid zones, however, the impact of such a gigantic project is beyond its
size and space requirements and the changes it brings in the ecology and the
environment of its region. Introduction of the compact city minimises the
negativeness of such impact in comparison to that of the conventional city.
Again, our suggestions of physically crowded buildings is not necessarily to be
associated with high population density. In addition, high population density
need not always be associated with negative social effects or poor health and sani-
tary conditions.
It is generally accepted that the average division of land uses in a new town is
as presented in Table 2. We then compare that with the probable division of land
uses in our suggested compact city. The table shows our belief that in our com-
pact city nearly 50% of the land use can be subterranean without interfering or
interrupting the psychological and traditional individual and group image of the
urban atmosphere.
 Suggested for compact city
British new towns Above ground Beiow ground

Residential 43 22 21
Industry 12 8 4
Open space 22 11 11
Education and health 4 2 2
Commercial centres 2 1 1
Street services 17 8 9
100 s2 -?x

* In percentages,
Source: G. Golany,New Town P~a~n~~~:~nciplesand~act~ce, pp. 330-331, Wiley, New York, 1976.
Britain: averaging of three representative case studies.

Nomzs. We should establish basic policy norms for the planning-design of the
city that combines compactness with subtemanean placement.
(1) Population density per unit (for residential, education, community acti-
vities, or commercial) should be the same as applicable existing norms even
though compactness is combined with subterranean placement.
(2) Density norms must take into consideration future improvements and
changes in norms to enable future expansion and to avoid serious population
shift and neighbourhood dete~oration. Subte~anean space has the built-in ad-
vantage for potential expansion. The same can be said for the compact above-
ground section which can expand vertically.
(3) Transportation network and parking space should be circumferential if
they are to be above ground. Emergency traffic can penetrate to the above-ground
space when necessary.
(4) Pedestrians should not have to walk more than 400 m within the neigh-
bourhood (i.e. from the centre to the pe~phe~).
(5) Maximum privacy should be provided for each housing unit with separate
entrances provided. The pedestrian network should not interfere with home
privacy and should not cause noise in the residential area.
(6) Residential units should enjoy at least two directions of orientation for sun-
shine, vent~ation, light, and view.
We can expect that the compact city will intensify social interaction among
many of the age groups to a greater extent than in our conventional dispersed
city. In any case, such a consequence should be allowed for by the planner-
designer of the compact city. He should plan for provision of ample public open
space as meeting places (such as scattered small green areas and subterranean
public open space). For example, the compact city by its nature provides safe
freedom of movement for children because of elimination of traffic within the
residential area and safe passage within the nei~bourhood. Also, shopping will
become more frequent because of the proximity of shops to the residential area.
It should also be mentioned here that homogeneous groups are more tolerant
of high density than are heterogeneous groups. The planner should ‘compensate’
the residents by offering ample open space, green area, safety from traffic for
c~dren and the elderly, and prox~ity to social, educational and health services.

Urban forms and configurations

People spend most of their time within the built-in env~onment of the settlement
and not outside of it. The plann~g-design of the built environment and its micro-
climate is of great concern to us,
Proper planning of the city can certainly influence and improve the urban
160 Gideon Golany

microclimate. The following is a listing of factors and types of activities which

have negative or positive effects on the city climate.
(1) Human activities which produce heat:
(a) human bodies’ radiation to their immediate environs;
(b) home heating or cooling;
(c) cooking.
(2) Car operation (engine heat and pollution).
(3) Industrial operation (heat and pollution).
(4) Settlement form: the combination and the complexity of morphology,
magnitude, heights of buildings, city entrances’ exposure, street design and
orientation, house form, open spaces, density of built-up area, colours of houses
and the streets, vegetative cover and intensity of evapotranspiration, building
materials, urban design configuration strongly influence the microclimate of the
city.
Many of the above activities are controllable or can be channelled toward the
optimal direction. The planners’ efforts can make a considerable difference in the
city’s microclimate.
Thus, any city creates its own microclimate which differs from that of the open
space of its macroregion. Within the city itself there are ‘pockets’ of climate
differing from one place to another. In general, we can state that the central
business district of the city is warmer than its surroundings due to the intensity
of its activities. Also, most cities and especially the industrial ones have a heat
island above them. The thermal index resulting from the reciprocal relationships
between the climate and the city as a whole is a measure of the thermal load and
of the human comfort. City conditions, for example, can support the formation
of inversion and clouds and can influence the development of vegetation.
The form of the city, therefore, can ease wind velocity, increase temperature
or reduce it, and increase relative humidity (resulting from evapotranspiration,
evaporation and the like). Also, the amount of solar radiation returning to the
air in the city is less than that occurring in the open space outside the city. Thus,
within the city, much of the radiation is absorbed by various elements of the city.
For example, vegetation within an arid city absorbs much radiation directly and
converts it through the photosynthetic process to chemical energy and thus re-
duces air temperature. In an arid city solar radiation which was absorbed through-
out the day by the buildings is released back into the air when it starts to become
cooler. A dense built-up area will lose temperature more slowly than a more open
built-up area.
Uniform city morphology will absorb much radiation through the roof area,
while a city of different heights will enjoy the shadowing by the tall buildings.
Thus, reflected radiation from the roofs will be less.
As mentioned before, arid-city temperature is determined by the intensity of
solar energy, the inhabitants’ activities, and the ventilation pattern within the city
itself. The cooling process within the city centre is slower than that at the peri-
pheral parts. City configuration, streets’ pattern, and structure of the houses
determine the velocity of wind penetration within the city. Air movement or air
turbulence may also be caused by heated air rising in the city and drawing cold
air from the periphery to replace it through straight and open streets. Large open
spaces within the arid city are not desirable since they create large heated air
masses which become even more undesirable when combined with dust in the
absence of vegetation. Wind movement in an arid city is not as essential as it is in
a warm, humid climate. Moreover, improper planning of arid-city streets and
configuration can make the human comfort within the city even worse. We can
state in general that the plan of an arid city should not encourage air movement
within that city.
Air above the city is subject to freer movement than that within the city itself.
 Planning Principles of Arid-zone Settlement 161

Thus, a single high-rise bu~d~g above dense and low bu~dings can create air
turbulence and force air to go down to ventilate the adjacent streets and clear
away pollution when necessary. Such a planning solution may be required for
streets polluted by traffic, restaurants or streets which collect odours. It would be
proper in a dense and compact arid-zone city to have a few scattered, single tall
buildings rising above their surroundings. In such buildings window design has to
be planned thoughtfully to meet the special climatic conditions faced by a high-
rise.
Orientation of an arid-zone city determines the amount of shadowing and
radiation, light and ventilation. In arid regions, wind direction and velocity change
often through the day. Also there is a great change in temperature between day
and night and a considerable variation within each time period. Therefore, it is
most difficult to suggest a universal model of streets and city conjuration which
can respond to all those changes in an optimal way. Yet, we can accept the
following generalised assumptions as guidelines for planning.
(1) Streets which are designed in parallel will support air movement within the
city. The winds blowing through the unpaved streets with no vegetation at the
edges (or in the centre) can cause dust turbulence and garbage accumulation. On
the other hand, perpendicular streets can ease stormy, dusty winds and bring
cooler winds during the day and warmer winds at night. Straight, blocked streets
and alleys can reduce wind movement to a great extent.
(2) Grid streets perpendicular and parallel to the east-west axis will receive
much radiation and little shadowed area. Therefore, they do not encourage
pedestrian use. But a grid of streets diagonal to the east-west axis enjoys more
shadowed sides. Thus, although the grid pattern maximises radiation along its
straight streets, it is still possible to reduce this radiation received and distribute it
throughout the day by orienting the grid pattern diagonally to the east-west axis,
even though such a grid still supports the dynamic movement of the air, if this is
desired by the planner.
(3) Narrow, winding or narrow, zig-zagging alleys receive minimum sunshine,
reduce the effect of stormy winds and establish shadowed space throughout the
day. This provides a cool and comfortable microclimate and also stays relatively
warm during the cold nights of the arid zone.
(4) Wide streets will receive and absorb large quantities of solar radiation and
will not encourage pedestrian use. Radiation is also increased with asphalt cover
and reduced when stone paving or cement covers the streets.
(5) Vegetation (trees) in the centre or along the street absorbs dust and pol-
lution, reduces noise in the adjacent area, minimises the effect of solar radiation,
reduces albedo and establishes shadowed areas. Streets when they are narrow can
be covered frequently to increase shadowing.
(6) The type of vegetation and its density also have an influence on the arid
city’s climate by influencing radiation, relative humidity, air temperature, wind
velocity, and shadowing. Consequently, they influence the climatic comfort of
the residents if not the aesthetic appeal of the city.
(7) Evapotranspiration from vegetation increases the relative humidity and
consequently reduces air temperature where the vegetation is located. Shadowed
areas reduce radiation; vegetation absorbs it and functions as a windbreak, there-
by reducing air pollution and the effects of dusty winds; shrubs reduce dust par-
ticles and sound movement near the ground. Therefore, a scattered distribution of
open green space throughout the arid city is more preferable than a concentration
in one or two areas.
Land mes

A major intention of the arid-city planner-designer must be to minimise the

penetration of the desert into the city. The use of water (if available) and of trees
162 Gideon Go/any

located circumferentially or in planned zones within the city can help; but the
main thrust must come in the planning-designing of the land-use pattern.
We can suggest the following methods to achieve arid land-use goals.
(1) Maximise the proximity of land uses to ease movement in shadowed and
climatically protected spaces (such as patios), thus also reducing infrastructure
length and energy consumption.
(2) Avoid planning large, public open spaces in order to minimise dust storms.
All open space should be paved or planted. There should be detailed plans for all
public open space, and it should be scattered in small patches rather than concen-
trated in one or two areas.
(3) Plan transportation to be circumferential to the clustered residential area.
Movement within the city should be designed to be hierarchical. Every land-use
pattern determines to a large extent the amount of transportation needed.
(4) Integrate all city land uses and segregate only those activities (such as
polluting industries) which have negative effects on residential areas. Integration
should include residential, commercial and shopping (retail), education, manu-
facturing (nonpolluting and not noisy), and open green space. We believe that
climatic stress imposes the necessity of integrated rather than conventional land
uses. Integration supports proximity, climatic comfort and social interaction; it
saves land use and intensifies land uses by all age groups. In addition it reduces
dependency on motor vehicles and meets the norms of developing societies which
occupy much of the arid land today.
(5) Use native trees to reduce water consumption. Those which require water
should receive it by dripping irrigation at night in order to minimise evaporation.
(6) Plan subterranean land use to bring compactness and maximise efficient
use of the land.
(7) Plan compact land uses to maximise the possibility of shadowed and cool
environment.
(8) Avoid planning land uses which may encourage water accumulation or
flooding. Open and subsurface drainage systems should be scattered and absorb
the maximum flow. Also, land should be designated for: water bodies, under-
ground water storage, water recycling, swimming pools, and water projects.
(9) Design for maximum shadowing of the public spaces: patios, streets, and
alleys. Avoid large and continuous parking areas. Shadowing can be achieved by
trees, buildings, orientation pattern, structure forms, slope, and by light-struc-
tured dividers. Also, vegetation absorbs radiation and therefore minimises re-
flection.
(10) Designate additional space for food refrigeration and for warehouses
because of the long distances from the sources of supply.
(11) Plan ample land usage for social activities, recreation and entertainment.
Minimise the feelings of isolation in an arid-zone city and compensate for the
lack of conventional green countryside in the immediate environs of the arid
city.
(12) Increase space provided for local production for such items as building
supplies or other materials to foster self-sufficiency.
(13) Plan so that all land uses are accessible to vehicles as well as to pedestrians.
(14) Take advantage of the arid city’s environs as a usual and aesthetic amenity,
thus improving the local self-image. Although the topographical form is a major
contributor to the aesthetics, it also determines the relationship of land uses to
each other.
(15) Allocate residential land uses so that smog and dust pollution is not
carried in by prevailing wind and noise pollution from major regional and local
roads is avoided. Proper planting of trees can reduce both dust and noise pol-
lution.
 Planning Principles of Arid-zone Settlement 163

CONCLUSIONS

(1) The arid zone is unique and requires special planning and design treatment.
Planning should be comprehensive in order to achieve optimal results.
(2) City planning in arid zones is a new field in its own right and requires
thorough innovative study. No planning solution should be imported without
adjustment to the arid site. Yet, planners should formulate and crystallise its
planning and design theories and principles for arid zones.
(3) Among all aspects of the planning of an arid city, site selection is the most
crucial and has social, economic and physical impact on the life of the residents
and the future of the city.
(4) In spite of their limitations, arid zones have diverse potentialities for urban
as well as for rural expansion. However, science, technology and an innovative de-
sign together with a pioneering spirit are necessary in order to bring promising
results. This old/new frontier is one of the few left on earth for settlement ex-
pansion, for food production and for energy exploration.
(5) Finally, arid zones have highly sensitive ecosystems at the threshold of sur-
vival. Ignoring arid uniqueness can bring real threats to life and investment.
Floods, for example, are regarded as destructive, but these can be an asset when
treated properly.