CHAPTER 4

The Physical Environment

(air, water, land)
LITHOSPHER
E
LITHOSPHERE
- comes from the Greek words
lithos, meaning ‘rocky’, and sphaeros,
meaning ‘sphere’.
- it is the rigid, rocky, outermost part
of Earth, composed of the crust and
the uppermost part of the upper mantle.
The Planet Earth
The Planet Earth
- Earth, our home planet, is a world
unlike any other.
- is a rocky, terrestrial planet.
- Earth is special because it is an ocean
planet, it is about 70% of Earth’s surface
is cover by water.
The Planet Earth
• Processes and events dating back to the Big
Bang eventually led to the existence of life
on Earth.
• It is also important to note that earth is
situated within a habitable zone – the
distance from the star where liquid water
can exist in its liquid form.
The Planet Earth
• The habitable zone, also called Goldilocks
zone, provides just the right amount of heat
and provides Earth with the capacity to
maintain water in its liquid form.
• The interaction among Earth’s subsystems
is vital in sustaining life on the planet.
 The Planet Earth
4 Subsystems of
Earth
1. Geosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Atmosphere
4. Biosphere
Subsystems of Earth
1. Geosphere – refers to the rocks,
minerals, and geologic land form of
Earth, or refers to the solid Earth.
2. Hydrosphere – the totality of water,
including the permanently frozen parts
called cryosphere.
Subsystems of Earth
3. Atmosphere – mixture of gases that
surround the planet.

4. Biosphere – includes all life forms and

even organic matter that has not yet
decomposed.
Subsystems of Earth
• Life on Earth exists within a zone where
interactions among the four subsystems
occur.
• The four subsystems are linked systems –
any changes in one system affects the
three.
The Plate
Tectonics
The Plate Tectonics
- is a scientific theory that explains how major
landforms are created as a result of Earth’s
subterranean movements.
- its theory revolutionized the earth sciences
by explaining how the movement of geologic
plates causes mountain building, volcanoes, and
earthquake.
The Plate Tectonics
The Rock
Cycle
Rocks
- is a naturally-occurring, coherent
aggregate of minerals such as glass or
organic matter.

- are found in the lithosphere.

The Rock Cycle
- is a model that describes all the
processes by which rocks are
formed, modified, transported,
decomposed, melted, and reformed.
The Rock Cycle
- is connected to the other biogeochemical
cycles which serve as pathways for
important chemical substances to move
through the different components of Earth.
- these processes occur both on Earth’s
surface and underneath.
The Rock Cycle
The Rock Cycle
Processes and Products of the Rock Cycle
PROCESSES PRODUCT
Melting Magma
Crystallization Igneous rocks
Uplift and exposure
Weathering and erosion Sediments
Transportation

Deposition
Sedimentary rocks
Lithification
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphism
(heat and pressure)
• The different processes in
the rock cycle form different
types of rocks.
Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks
- derived from Latin word igneus,
which means “fiery” or “on fire”.
- are formed from the cooling and
solidification of magma or lava.
- are form at higher temperatures than
other types of rocks.
Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
- are the products of the lithification
of particles produced by the weathering of
other pre-existing rocks.
- can have parent material derived from
older igneous, metamorphic, and even
sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
- are mostly composed of minerals that only
form at the high temperatures and pressures
associated with the process of metamorphism.
- are form when pre-existing or parent rocks
are altered by heat, pressure, and the chemical
activity of fluids through metamorphism, or
“change in form”.
Metamorphic Rocks
 The
Formation
of Soil
Soil
- is an essential component of Earth that has
enabled life to exist on the planet and
continues to support it.
- is an important element in the development
of agriculture.
- it forms the pedosphere – the foundation of
terrestrial life on this planet.
Pedosphere
- derived from the Greek words pedon
which means “soil” and sfaira which means
“sphere”.
- it is the living skin of Earth which is
result of the dynamic interaction among the
atmosphere, biosphere, and the
hydrosphere.
The Components of Soil
• Soil is made from portions of the
geosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.

• Soil is generally composed of 45%

mineral, 25% air, 25% water, and 5%
organic matter.
The Components of Soil
Soil Formation
• Soil forms when rock weathers.
• Weathering, or the breakdown of
rocks, may result from physical or
chemical changes.
 Soil
Formation
Soil Formation
• Soil formation may be slow or rapid
process, depending on the factors at play.
Soil Formation
Soil Formation
5 Factors that affect Soil Formation
1. Parent material
2. Climate
3. Topography
4. Biological factors
5. Time
1. Composition of the Parent Material
- The parent or source material is
important in soil formation because its
chemistry and type will determine the soil
that will be formed.
- However, most soils are transported
from their source to another area by agents
of erosion and transportation such as water,
wind, and ice.
2. Climate
- Temperature, rainfall, and moisture
affects the pattern and intensity of soil-
forming processes such as weathering,
leaching, transportation, and distribution.
- Climate also affects the type of
organisms, biological activity, and rates of
chemical reactions.
3. Topography
- The gradient of the slope affects water
flow and erosion. Soils that form in steep
slopes tend to be thinner because of the
higher rates of erosion.
- Slope aspect, which is the direction of
the slope face, affects temperature and
moisture as slopes facing the suns are
warmer.
4. Biological Factors
- Organisms such as plants,
microorganisms, and humans affect soil
formation. Animals and microorganisms mix
the soil through burrowing, while plant roots
aid in the weathering process as they grow.
- Human activities such as agriculture and
urbanization have positive and negative
effects on the quantity and quality of soil.
5. Time
- The formation of soil is a long and
continuous process which may take hundreds
to thousands of years depending on the
climate and environment.
- In moderate climates, it takes 200 to 400
years to develop 1 cm of soil. The rate is
faster in tropical climates and much longer in
dry and cold climates.
 E

The
Sedimentation
Process
 E
The Sedimentation Process
- is the process of separating small
particles and sediments in water.
- this process happens naturally when
water is still because gravity will pull the
heavier sediments down to form a sludge.
 E
Examples of Sediment:
• boulders
• pebbles
• cobbles
• sand
• silt
• clay
 E
Example of
Sedimentation Process

• Sand and
water
separation
 E
The Sedimentation Process
HYDROSPHER
E
HYDROSPHERE
- the part of Earth’s subsystem
containing the oceans, lakes, streams,
underground water, snow, and ice.
- it makes up about 71% of
Earth’s surface.
WATER
- is normally perceived as restricted to its
liquid form as seen in the rivers, oceans, and the
water that we drink.
- is also present in the other subsystems.
- exists in the hydrosphere, geosphere,
atmosphere, and biosphere, and are connected
together by processes in the hydrologic cycle.
Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic Cycle
- is the movement of water around
Earth’s surface and its subsystems
through the process of evaporation,
transpiration, sublimation, condensation,
precipitation, infiltration, and runoff.
Hydrologic Cycle
- also known as water cycle.
- it consist of interconnected pathways
and reservoirs.
- is the continuous movement of water
in the air, on the surface of and below the
Earth.
• Reservoirs
- are the places where water
resides for varying amount of time.

• Pathways
- are the processes that allow
water to move between reservoirs
and subsystems.
Hydrologic Cycle
Global Water Resource
 Global Water Resource
• According to most estimates, about 94-
97% of all water on Earth is seawater
held in the oceans.

• All freshwater resources occur in the

remaining 3-6%.
 Global Water Resource
• Around half of this is frozen in snow,
glaciers and icecaps, about half is found
underground as groundwater and a
fraction of a percent (less than 0.1%) is
surface water found in rivers, lakes,
reservoirs, the atmosphere and all living
things.
Why is the water resource important?
• It is vital to our individual health, our
collective agricultural needs, and the needs
of our environment.
• It is the foundation of all life and important
to sanitation, human rights, urbanization,
sustainability, and economic growth.
Global Water
Resource
The Role of Ocean Current in
regulating Global Climate
 The Role of Ocean Current in regulating
Global Climate
• Ocean current act much like a conveyer
belt, transporting warm water and
precipitation from the equator toward the
poles and cold water from the poles back
to the tropics.
 The Role of Ocean Current in regulating
Global Climate
• Ocean current regulate global climate,
helping to counteract the uneven distribution
of solar radiation reaching Earth’s surface.
• One way that the world’s ocean affects
weather and climate is by playing an
important role in keeping our planet warm.
• The ocean current influences weather
and climate by:
- storing solar radiation
- distributing heat and moisture
around the globe
- driving weather systems.
The Role of Ocean Current in regulating
Global Climate
The Tidal Cycle
 Tides vs. Waves
Tides – cause the ocean to rise and fall
twice each day.

Waves – cause the ocean to move all day

long.
The Tidal Cycle
- A tidal cycle is one high tide plus a
successive low tide.
3 Basic Types of Tidal Cycles
1. Semi - diurnal Tides
2. Diurnal Tides
3. Mixed Tides
What causes tidal cycles?
• High tides and low tides are caused by the
moon.
• The moon’s gravitational pull generates
something called tidal force.
• The tidal force causes Earth – and its water –
to bulge out on the side closest to the moon
and the side farthest from the moon.
• Theses bulges of water are high tides.
The Tidal Cycle
The Characteristics of Fresh & Marine
Aquatic Environment
The Characteristics of Fresh & Marine
Aquatic Environment

• The aquatic biome is divided into:

1. Freshwater regions
2. Marine aquatic regions
The Characteristics of Fresh & Marine
Aquatic Environment
1. Freshwater found in the form of:
- ponds - creeks
- lakes - rivers
- streams
- frozen water
-wetlands (swamps, jungles, and
floodplains)
The Characteristics of Fresh & Marine
Aquatic Environment
2. Marine regions such as:
- sea - mangrove
forest
- ocean - coral reefs
- estuaries - open ocean
- salt marshes – deep-sea ocean
The Characteristics of Fresh
Environment
The Characteristics of Fresh Environment
1. Habitat for various plant and animal species.
One of the major reasons is that it is quite
rich in terms of nutrition and minerals.
2. The fresh environment is less saline (low salt
concentration), unlike the marine environment.
3. The temperature varies depending on some
factors like location, season, and depth from the
water surface.
The Characteristics of Fresh Environment
4. The size and shape of fresh environment vary
depending on location, an area covered, and
depth of water bodies.

5. It contains sediments at the bottom. In gentle

flowing freshwater bodies or still water
bodies, the sediments remain in place.
The Characteristics of Fresh Environment
6. It provides a suitable environment for various
species of flora and fauna.

7. Formed by biotic (living beings) and abiotic

(non-living) factors that interact in freshwater as
an environment.
 Types of Freshwater Ecosystem

1. Lotic Freshwater Ecosystem

2. Lentic Freshwater Ecosystem
3. Wetland Freshwater Ecosystem
 Types of Freshwater Ecosystem
1. Lotic Freshwater Ecosystem
- the water bodies moving in one
direction.
- it travel through different locations
from its source to mouth.
Examples:
- rivers
 Types of Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Lentic Freshwater Ecosystem
- an aquatic ecosystem within stagnant or
still water.
- found in various sizes ranging from a
few square meters to thousands of
square km.
Examples:
- ponds
 Types of Freshwater Ecosystem
3. Wetland Freshwater Ecosystem
- still water bodies that support vascular
plants.
- wetlands are quite productive due to the
proximity of water and soil.
Examples:
- marshes - bogs
- swamps
The Characteristics of Marine
Aquatic Environment
 The Characteristics of Marine Aquatic
Environment

1. High levels of dissolved salt (salinity).

2. Marine characteristics include variable

temperature, a surface photic zone, and deeper
aphotic zone.
 The Characteristics of Marine Aquatic
Environment
3. Its biodiversity varies by depth and location.
4. Provides many ecosystems that support biodiversity
in coastal and open ocean habitats.
5. Provides many resources that benefit society, and a
significant proportion of the world’s population
depends closely on the ocean and the coast for
survival and well-being.
 The Characteristics of Marine Aquatic
Environment
6. Characterized by two components:
Biotic Components
- living organisms like parasites,
predators, competitors and other
species.
Abiotic Components
- temperature, salinity, turbulence, density,
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
1. Open Marine Ecosystem
- extends up to 150 meters from the ocean
surface.
- provides habitat to various sea creatures such
as plankton, algae, whales, jellyfish, etc.
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
2. Deep-Sea Marine Ecosystem
- the ecosystem deep inside the oceans at its
floor.
- inhabiting various animal species in the
seabed up to 1000 meters depth underwater.
- huge range of animal species found in this
ecosystem are squids, fishes, elephant
seals, sperm whales, crabs, worms,
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
3. Coral Reef Marine Ecosystem
- coral reefs are special type of marine
ecosystem found in the sea floor. Coral
reefs are the skeleton made up of
limestone.
- mostly found in tropical waters and is quite a
productive ecosystem found on the earth.
- provides food and shelter to almost ¼
of
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
4. Saltwater Wetlands Marine Ecosystem
- are the coastal areas of oceans and seas.
- commonly found species of saltwater wetland
ecosystem are amphibians, reptiles, some
migratory birds, shellfishes, few
fishes, etc.
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
5. Estuary Marine Ecosystem
- the area around the river mouth where it merges
with marine water.
- the salinity in this ecosystem varies with tides.
- it does not support a variety of species.
- mostly the species of the neighboring ecosystem
are found in this area.
- it also plays an essential role in nurseries for
various kinds of fishes, shrimps, etc.
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
6. Mangrove Marine Ecosystem
- a special type of saltwater swamp found in
some tropical and sub-tropical coastal
regions.
- are home for special types of tress that can
survive in the saline ecosystem.
- provides shelter to various species such as
shrimps, jellyfish, birds, sponges, crabs, fish,
crocodiles, etc.
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
7. Sandy Beach Ecosystem
- is quite poor in terms of biodiversity as compared
to different marine ecosystems.
- the environment in the sandy beach ecosystem
varies a lot.
- species that are found in this ecosystem are sea
turtle, sea lion, seal, algae, plankton,
invertebrates like snails, crabs, clams, etc., and birds.
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
8. Kelp Forest Marine Ecosystem
- found in comparative cooler water.
- supports various animal species such as seabirds,
shorebirds, invertebrates (like crabs, sea
stars, snails, etc.), fishes, mammals (like sea
lions, seals, whales, sea otter, etc.)
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
9. Polar Marine Ecosystem
- located in polar regions where the climate is
extremely cold.
- species found in this ecosystem have adapted to
the adverse climatic conditions of this region.
- most common species found in this ecosystem are
planktons, algae, birds (like penguins), polar
bears, seals, walruses, etc.
 Types of Marine Ecosystem
10. Rocky Marine Ecosystem
- the combination of rock shores, rock cliffs,
boulders, tide pools, etc.
- generally have species like lichens, birds,
invertebrate (lobsters, urchins, barnacles, sea
stars, sea squirts, seal, etc.)
- a unique ecosystem that supports various plant and
animal lives. All these species set an excellent
example of a great food chain as compared to other