SOIL FORMATION &

IDENTIFICATION
 GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

GEOTECHNICAL ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING ENGINEERING
 What do you
understand about
rock?
 ROCK FORMATION PROCESS

1. IGNEOUS 3. METAMORPHIC
ROCK ROCK

2. SEDIMENTARY
ROCK
 Summarize
Pyroclastic Ejection

Soil
I W
Igneous Rock
W
Sedimentary W Mt C
Rock
M
M
Metamorphic Magma
Rock Mt

Pyroclastic Ejection C = Cooling

W =Weathering M =Metamorphosis Mt =Melting I = Indurations
 What do you
understand about
Soil?
SOIL
Minerals which have a common bond
fluid particles are weak or non-binding.

It is formed from rock weathering results.

There are voids which consist of

air and water among the particles.

Supportive role to the load structures built on it.

 The term Soil has various meanings, depending upon the
general field in which it is being considered.

 To a Pedologist ... Soil is the substance existing on the

earth's surface, which grows and develops plant life.

 To a Geologist ..... Soil is the material in the relative thin

surface zone within which roots occur, and all the rest of the
crust is grouped under the term ROCK irrespective of its
hardness.

 *To an Engineer .... Soil is the un-aggregated or un-

cemented deposits of mineral and/or organic particles or
fragments covering large portion of the earth's crust.
  Soils are a mixture of different things; rocks, minerals, and dead, decaying
plants and animals. Soil can be very different from one location to another,
but generally consists of organic and inorganic materials, water and air.

 The inorganic materials are the rocks that have been broken into smaller
pieces. The size of the pieces varies. It may appear as pebbles, gravel, or as
small as particles of sand or clay.

 The organic material is decaying living matter. This could be plants or

animals that have died and decay until they become part of the soil. The
amount of water in the soil is closely linked with the climate and other
characteristics of the region.

 The amount of water in the soil is one thing that can affect the amount of
air. Very wet soil like you would find in a wetland probably has very little
air.
 SOIL
 Geologic definition: Loose surface of the earth as distinguished
from solid bedrock; support of plant life not required.
SOIL
 Traditional definition: Material which nourishes and
supports growing plants; includes rocks, water, snow,
air.
 SOIL
Collection of natural bodies of
 Soil Taxonomy definition:
the earth’s surface, in places modified or even
made by man or earthy materials, containing
living matter and supporting or capable of
supporting plants out of doors.
Its upper limit is air or shallow water and its
lower limit is the depth to which soil
weathering has been effective.
 SOIL
Collection of natural
 As a portion of the landscape:
bodies occupying portions of the earth’s surface
that support plants and that have properties due
to the integrated effect of climate and living
matter, acting upon parent material, as
conditioned by relief, over periods of time.
SOIL FORMATION

 Soils are formed by the disintegration of rock

material of the earth’s relatively deeper crust,
which itself is formed by the cooling of
volcanic magma. The stability of crystalline
structure governs the rock formation.
 As the temperature falls, new and often more
stable minerals are formed. For instance, one
of the most abundant minerals in soils known
as quartz acquires a stable crystalline
structure when the temperature drops below
573oC.
 The intermediate and less stable minerals
(from which quartz has evolved) lend
themselves to easy disintegration during the
formation of soils.
SOIL FORMATION PROCESS

 Soil material is the product of rock.

The geological process that produce
soil is WEATHERING (Chemical and
Physical/Mechanical).

 Variation in particle size and shape depends on:

i. Weathering Process
ii. Transportation Process
 Soil Forming Processes
 Translocations

 Transformations

 Additions

 Losses
SOIL FORMATION PROCESS
Soil material is the product of rock.
The geological process that produce soil is WEATHERING (Chemical and
Physical/Mechanical).

Chemical Weathering
Physical Weathering
Can transformed hard rock
Physical breakdown of rocks and minerals into soft, easily erodable
minerals. matter.
Agents: Chemical reactions induced by
exposure to oxygen, water and
- The erosive action of rain, ice,
wind, hail, glaciers etc (frost chemicals.
action) Agents:
- Thermal expansion and - Oxidation, Reduction,
contraction from day to day and Carbonation, Leaching,
season to season (heat & cold) Hydration, Desilication,
- Landslides and rockfalls Hydrolisis, Chelation, cation
exchange between the rock
- Activities of plants, animals and mineral surface and the
humans. surrounding medium.
Stages in the Formation of Soil

stage 1 stage 2

stage 3 stage 4
 GROUPS OF SOIL

ORGANIC SOIL
Land on which RESIDUAL SOIL
there is a layer
on the surface of Formed by the TRANSPORTED
the earth weathering SOIL
process
Contain organic Material
subtances Material formed transported and
by disintegration deposited by
The thickness of of underlying running water,
the soil usually parent rock or air, wind,
does not exceed partially glaciers, gravity
500 mm indurated etc.
material.
The types of soil that formed from weathering and
transportation process.

 Organic Soil
- Organic matter originates from plant or animal
remains, the end product of which known as humus, a
complex mixture of organic compounds.
- A feature of topsoil, occurring in the upper layer (>0.5
m thickness).
 Alluvial Soil (water-laid), Aeolian (wind-laid), glacial
(ice-transported)
- particles are brought into contact with the stream bed
and with each other and so are abraded.
- Erosion Agents: water, glacier, or gravity.
 Residual Soil
- Soils that have not been transported.
- Weathering process (chemical and physical)
Soil Forming Factors

1. Parent material:
 The primary material from which the soil is
formed. Soil parent material could be bedrock,
organic material, an old soil surface, or a deposit
from water, wind, glaciers, volcanoes, or material
moving down a slope.

2. Climate:
 Weathering forces such as heat, rain, ice, snow,
wind, sunshine, and other environmental forces,
break down parent material and affect how fast
or slow soil formation processes go. Amount of
moisture available, temperature, chemical
reaction speed and rate of plant growth
 Soil Forming Factor Cont’d
3. Organisms present:
 All plants and animals living in or on the soil
(including micro-organisms and humans). The
amount of water and nutrients, plants need
affects the way soil forms.

4. Topography:
 The location of a soil on a landscape can
affect how the climatic processes impact it.
Soils at the bottom of a hill will get more
water than soils on the slopes, and soils on
the slopes that directly face the sun will be
drier than soils on slopes that do not.
 Soil Forming Factor Cont’d
5. Time:
 All of the above factors assert themselves over time, often
hundreds or thousands of years. Soil profiles continually change
from weakly developed to well developed over time.
 Varies for soils in different climates, locations.
 Soil Composition
 While a nearly infinite variety of substances may be found in
soils, they are categorized into four basic components: minerals,
organic matter, air and water.
 Most introductory soil textbooks describe the ideal soil (ideal for
the growth of most plants) as being composed of 45% minerals,
25% water, 25% air, and 5% organic matter. In reality, these
percentages of the four components vary tremendously.
 Soil air and water are found in the pore spaces between the solid
soil particles. The ratio of air-filled pore space to water-filled pore
space often changes seasonally, weekly, and even daily,
depending on water additions through precipitation, through
flow, groundwater discharge, and flooding.
 The volume of the pore space itself can be altered, one way or the
other, by several processes. Organic matter content is usually
much lower than 5% in South Carolina (typically 1% or less).
Some wetland soils, however, have considerably more organic
matter in them (greater than 50% of the solid portion of the soil
in some cases).
 SOIL COMPOSITION
While a nearly infinite
variety of substances
may be found in soils,
they are categorized into
The volume of the pore space itself can be four basic components:
altered, one way or the other, by several minerals, organic matter,
processes. Organic matter content is usually air and water.
much lower than 5% in South Carolina
(typically 1% or less). Some wetland soils,
however, have considerably more organic matter
in them (greater than 50% of the solid portion of
the soil in some cases).
Most introductory soil
Soil air and water are found in the pore spaces textbooks describe the
between the solid soil particles. The ratio of air- ideal soil (ideal for the
filled pore space to water-filled pore space often growth of most plants) as
changes seasonally, weekly, and even daily, being composed of 45%
depending on water additions through minerals, 25% water, 25%
precipitation, through flow, groundwater air, and 5% organic
discharge, and flooding. matter. In reality, these
percentages of the four
components vary
tremendously.
SOIL

 Component definition: Mixture of

mineral matter, organic
matter, water, and air.
SOIL

• Component definition: Mixture of mineral

matter, organic matter, water, and air.
• Example:

Air 25%

Mineral Matter
45%

Water 25%

Organic Matter 5%
 SOIL HORIZON
 If you were to begin digging into a mature soil, you would
notice that the color, texture, and other properties of the
soil changed as you went deeper. If you were to dig deep
enough, you would see that the soil appeared to be in
very distinct layers. These layers, known as soil horizons,
occur because of the different chemical and biological
processes that take place in these zones.

 Depending upon the type of soil, there can be up to 5

different horizons. These are denoted by the letters O, A,
B, C, and E. Not all soils will have these horizons, with
some immature soils having none. Most soils have at least
three of these (A, B, and C).
 ORGANIC

SURFACE SOIL

SUBSOIL

PARENT ROCK
 O) Organic matter: Litter layer of plant residues in
relatively undecomposed form.
 A) Surface soil: Layer of mineral soil with most
organic matter accumulation and soil life. This layer
eluviates (is depleted of) iron, clay, aluminum,
organic compounds, and other soluble constituents.
When eluviation is pronounced, a lighter colored
"E" subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base
of the "A" horizon. A-horizons may also be the
result of a combination of soil bioturbation and
surface processes that winnow fine particles from
biologically mounded topsoil. In this case, the A-
horizon is regarded as a "biomantle".
 B) Subsoil: This layer accumulates iron, clay,
aluminum and organic compounds, a process
referred to as illuviation.
 C) Parent rock: Layer of large unbroken rocks. This
layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds
.
 D horizons are not universally distinguished, but
in the Australian system refer to "any soil
material below the solum that is unlike the solum
in general character, is not C horizon, and cannot
be given reliable designation… [it] may be
recognized by the contrast in pedologic
organization between it and the overlying
horizons" (MacDonald et al., 1990, p. 106).

 R horizons basically denote the layer of partially

weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile.
Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely
comprise continuous masses (as opposed to
boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated
by hand. Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong
similarities to this bedrock layer.
 FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Soil Texture (Particle Size and Shape)

Soil Structure
i. Cohesionless Soils (gravel, sand and silt) – single
grained
ii. Cohesive Soils (clay soils) – its’ mineralogy and
is a controlling factor determining the shapes, sizes,
and surface characteristics of a particle in a soil.
Soil color
Bulk density
4 Major Types of Soils

SAND SILT
Coarse grained soil
CLAY
Organic / Inorganic
They are cohesionless Silt Fine-grained soil
aggregates of rounded Fine-grained soil with Kaolin group
subangular or angular little or no plasticity.
fragments of more or 1. Kaolinite
less unaltered rocks or 2. Halloysite
mineral. GRAVEL
Montmorilonite
Particles of size from Coarse grained soil group
0.075 to 4.75 mm – Individiual particles
sand. Illite group
that are large enough
Size from 4.75 -80 to be view without
mm as gravel. magnification

[Note: Sand, silt, and clay are collectively referred to as the fine earth fraction of
soil. They are <2 mm in diameter. Larger soil particles are referred to as rock
fragments and have their own size classes (pebbles, cobbles, and boulders).
Table of Particle Grain Size

PARTICLE GRAIN SIZE (mm)

ORGANIZATION
GRAVEL SAND SILT CLAY

2 to 0.07 0.075 to 0.
AASHTO 76.2 to 2 <0.002
5 002

76.2 to 4. 4.75 to 0.
ASTM Fines: 0.075
75 075

AASHTO – American Association of State highway and Transportation Officials

ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials
 The particle size  Coarse-grained Soil >65% Sand
and gravel – the soil name
classification systems also
based on the particle sizes
provide range for particles
present.
>76.2 mm, known as Cobbles
and Boulders.
 In general, cobbles range
from 76.2 – 400 mm.
 Fine-grained Soil >35% silt and
 Particles larger than 400 mm clay sizes it is based on
are considered boulders. behavioral characteristics.
 USDA Textural Triangle

USDA – United States Agricultural Department

Examples of Soil Structure
Granular
Blocky
(Subangular) (Angular)

Platy

Prismatic Columnar

Wedge
 Aspects of Soil Structure
 The arrangement into aggregates of desirable shape and size

 The stability of the aggregate

 The configuration of the pores

Factors that Affect Aggregate Stability

 Kind of clay

 Chemical elements associated with the clay

 Nature of the products of decomposition or organic matter

 Nature of the microbial population

 Factors that Affect Soil Structure
 Kind of clay

 Amount of organic matter

 Freezing and thawing

 Wetting and drying

 Action of burrowing organisms

 Growth of root systems of plants

 Important Note
 All of these have a loosening effect on the soil, but they have no
effect on aggregate stability
 Bulk Density
 Determined by dividing the weight of oven-dry soil in grams by
its volume in cubic centimeters

 The variation in bulk density is due largely to the difference in

total pore space
 Effects of Bulk Density
 Engineering properties

 Water movement

 Rooting depth of plants

 Soil Color
 Indicator of different soil types

 Indicator of certain physical and chemical characteristics

 Due to humus content and chemical nature of the iron

compounds present in the soil
Major Forms of Iron and Effect on Soil
Color

Form Chemical Formula Color

Ferrous oxide FeO Gray
Ferric oxide
(Hematite) Fe2O3 Red
Hydrated ferric oxide
(Limonite) 2Fe2O3 3H2O Yellow
Thank You

We
KNOW
Soil!
A mineral is naturally occurring, solid, inorganic (mostly),
has a fixed chemical formula and has an orderly
crystalline structure.

 Most minerals contain two  The most common rocks-forming

or more elements, 8 minerals can be divided into three
account for nearly 98% of broad groups:
the rocks and minerals: 1. The carbonates, sulfates and oxides
 Oxygen 46% 2. The rock-forming silicate materials
 Silicon 27.72% 3. The common ore mineral

 Aluminium 8.13%
 Iron 5%
 Calcium 3.63%
 Sodium 2.83%
 Potassium 2.59%
 Magnesium 2.09%