Part 1

Topics:-
Systems of Earth
 Lithosphere
 composition
 Rocks
 Soils
 Atmosphere
 layers
 Ozone layer
 Greenhouse effect
 Weather
 Cyclones
 Atmospheric circulations
 Indian monsoon
 Hydrosphere
 Oceans
 Inland water bodies
 Biosphere
What is Disaster Management?

▶ Disaster management refers to the conservation of lives

and property during natural or human-made disasters.
▶ Disaster management plans are multi-layered and are
planned to address issues such as floods, hurricanes,
fires, mass failure of utilities, rapid spread of disease and
droughts.
▶ Disaster management can be of either natural
disasters or man-made disasters.
Introduction
 Ecosystem
a concept in ecology was first defined by Tansley(1935) as
a system that combines living organisms(biomes) with the
physical environment.
 A place where nature has created a unique mixture of air,
water, soil, and a variety of living organisms that interact
and support with each other.
 The living(biotic) and (abiotic) interact with each other in
such a manner that it results in the flow of energy between
them
 Biotic includes birds, reptiles, insects, plants, bacteria etc
 Abiotic is atmospheric gases, water, sediment etc
Introduction
 Constituents of Ecosystem
 Include both the species that inhabit the area and the
physical environment
 Ecosystem can exist only in any place where there are
varied forms of life
 The life can sustain only when there is transfer of energy
 small self – contained ecosystems are microcosms
 They represents miniature systems eg: aquarium, small
ponds
 The largest and the only complete ecosystem is biosphere
 Biosphere - space where biota interacts with lithosphere,
atmosphere and hydrosphere
Introduction
The three physical spheres are
 Lithosphere
 Atmosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Lithosphere
 Upper oceanic and continental layer of solid earth
 comprises all the crystal rocks and the brittle part of the
uppermost mantle
 Pedosphere
 the area where soil envelops the earth and soil forming process is active
 forms when there is contact and interaction of lithosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere and biosphere
 has both biotic and abiotic components
 Pedolody is the study of soil
 Soil is the biologically active, structured porous medium
developed on the surface of the earth
 Components of soil are minerals, organic materials, water and
air
Lithosphere
 two types
 Oceanic lithosphere is about 5 km to 8 km thick composed of basalt
 Continental lithosphere which is 30 km to 40 km thick
Lithosphere

▶ Earth has seven major plates, which includes

Africa.
 Antarctica, Australia, Eurasia, North America, South
America and Pacifica, and a number of minor ones.
▶ A few important minor plates include Adria.
Arabia.
 Caribbean. Nazca, Philippines,etc.
▶ These plates are composed of oceanic
and continental lithosphere. They move
independently over the mantle relative
to one another, below the outer rigid
lithosphere.
▶ This area known as asthenosphere is about
100 km to 200 km thick, they move with at
Lithosphere

▶ The plates periodically reorganise themselves with new

plate boundaries being formed, while certain others
closing up.
▶ In addition to these movements, the plates also
change in shape.
▶ The plates have three different motions
1.They are Moving apart, thereby creating
divergent boundaries
2.Gliding horizontally along each other, thereby
creating wrench and transform boundaries
3.Moving towards one another, and creating
convergent boundaries
Composition of Lithosphere
 Lithosphere contains minerals, rocks and soil
 More than 100 chemical components
 Only a few elements are present in pure form, called native
elements
 Include copper, gold , lead, mercury, nickel, platinum and
silver
▶ Only a few elements are present in pure forms in the
earth’s crust called native elements, they include
copper, gold, lead, mercury, nickel, platinum and silver.
▶ These elements contained in ores are found in
different combinations as minerals.
▶ Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline
solids that have definite chemical compositions.
▶ Certain minerals are composed of single element. For
instance, diamond and graphite composed of only
carbon.
ROCKS
 Lithosphere has various types of rocks
 Rocks are naturally occurring hard and consolidated inorganic materials, composed
of one or a large number of minerals
 Coal and lime stones are developed from plant and animal remains
 Types
 Igneous
 Sedimentary
 Metamorphic
 ROCKS
• Igneous
 Formed by solidification of magma in the interior, or lava on the surface of the earth
 Composed of primary minerals(silicates)
 Sometimes overlap with sedimentary and metamorphic

• Sedimentary
 Formed by the precipitation from solutions and consolidation of remnants of biotic components
like plants and animals
 Contain both original primary minerals and altered as well as newly synthesized secondary
minerals

• Metamorphic
 Also known as thermal rocks
 Formed from preexisting rocks due to change in temperature and pressure in solid state
 When magma intrudes through preexisting igneous or sedimentary rocks
 All types of preexisting rocks undergo metamorphism
 Igneous and metamorphic rocks get weathered and form sediments.
 Sediments get deposited and lithified into sedimentary rocks
Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary
Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Weathering
 Is the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and
minerals
 Disintegration is due to fragmentation, splitting, detachment etc
 Decomposition occur as a result of chemical changes
 Weathering occurs as result of natural forces like heat, water,
wind, micro-organisms, the action of glaciers, chemical reactions
and so on
 Resulting changes may physical, chemical or both
 Based on the manner of occurrence weathering classified as
 Physical
 Thermal
 mechanical
 Chemical
 Geo chemical
 biochemical
Physical weathering

 Changes occurring only to physical form

 Occur as a result of heat, water, wind, microorganisms
etc
 Mostly due to action of temperature-thermal
weathering
 All other physical weathering process are mechanical
weathering
Physical weathering
Thermal weathering:
 Is caused by the expansion and contraction of rocks as a
result of fluctuation in temperature
 Expansion is more in summer than winter
 Different parts of rocks and diff varieties of rocks expand
and contract at diff rates
 Pressure is created within the rock when they expand or
contract
 Another weathering process known as exfoliation occurs at
layered rocks, rocks with homogenous composition at diff
zones, and rocks that expand at similar rates up to certain
depth
 The outer part expands and contracts at higher rates
 Then a thin layer of rocks get detached and form smaller
parts
Physical weathering
Mechanical weathering:
 Rocks get wet while absorbing water, and shrink when
dried
 This expansion of rocks due to alternate wetting and
drying break the rocks into pieces
 Water accumulated in the fractures or joints of rocks
become ice at low temp.
 The property of ice to increase volume exerts a lateral
pressure on the surrounding rocks
 The fractured rocks get broken known as frost wedging
 Frost heaving is a type of mechanical weathering
 Flowing water and rock fragments contained in the
rocks disintegrate while colliding with each other
Chemical weathering

 Alterations to the chemical or mineralogical composition of rocks

 Minerals decomposed to soluble and insoluble products
 Weathering due to the action of water, acids, salt’s etc are known
as geochemical weathering
 Due to the action of microorganisms , it is biochemical weathering
 Chemical weathering can occur as a result of processes, like
dissolution, hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction,
carbonation and other acid reactions
 Carbonation ia a biochemical weathering
 Carbonic acid is produced by dissolving co2 in water.
 Co2 in atmosphere is obtained by microbial or root respiration
processs
SOIL

 Soil is the surface layer

 Contains variable mixture of broken and weathered
materials and decaying organic matter
 It covers the earth in a thin layer
 Soil is a dynamic layer of earth
 Microbial activities occur
 Provides nutrients for the growth of plants
 Texture, structure, permeability, water porosity, soil pH
etc determines the fertility of the foil
Functions of soil

 Provide mechanical support to plant

 Ability of water holding-porosity(a reservoir of water)
 Provides Micro and macro nutrients, ideal pH
 Prevents excessive leaching of nutrients
 Soil houses bacteria that fixes nitrogen and other
elements like fugi, protozoa and other microorganisms
Atmosphere
 Is the various gases that encircle earth
 Also contain water vapour, certain other fine particle
materials like soot, dust of rock and soil, salt grains
from sea etc.
Classification of atmosphere
 Based on chemical composition
 Homosphere:-
 extends up to 88km from the earth surface
 Consists of gases like nytrogen,oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide
 More or less homogenous
 Heterosphere:-
 Lies above homosphere
 Starts from 88km above the earth surface
 Air composition is not uniform
 The upper part of contains lightest molecules while lower part
contains heavy molecules
 Four regions
 Molecular nitrogen layer(88km to 200 km)
 Oxygen layer(200km to 1125 km)
 Helium layer(1125 km to 3540 km)
 Heterosphere(3540 km to 9660 km)
Classification of atmosphere
Based on temperature
 Troposphere:-
 Lowest zone of atmosphere
 75% of gaseous mass is found here
 Water vapour exists only here
 Weather phenomena occurs in this zone
 Temp gradually decreases @ 6.5 degree celsius per km height
 Lowest layer is friction layer with the topography influencing the
wind speed and circulation
 Convective layer has wind speeds gradually increasing and attaining
the maximum
 All atmosphere pollutants and turbulence is very high
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
 Exosphere
Classification of atmosphere
Based on temperature
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere:-
 Extends from troposphere to about 50 k over the earths surface
 This zone is stratified, stable and is extremely dry with sparse clouds
 Contains much of ozone which protects the earth from uv radiations
 Temperature rises gradually with height due to the absorption of uv rays
 Due to this vertical wind seldom occurs and horizontal winds parallel to
earth’s surfaces are seen.
 This property leads to the absence of turbulence in this layer.
 This absence of turbulence and clouds ensures good visibility and
smooth travel for jet planes
 There is a small layer called stratopause where temperature neither
decreases nor increases with height
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
 Exosphere
Classification of atmosphere
Based on temperature
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere:-
 The zone above stratosphere up to the height of about 80
km
 Temperature decreases uniformly with height and will
reach -100 degree celc.
 atmosphere pressure is also very low
 Mesosphere plays a crucial role in radio communication as
ionization occurs here
 The ionized particles are concentrated as a zone in this
layer which is named D- layer

 Thermosphere
 Exosphere
Classification of atmosphere
Based on temperature
 Troposphere:-
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere:-
 Atmospheric density is extremely low
 Temp. increases rapidly
 Temp @ 350 km is 1200 degree C
 Lower portion consists of nitrogen and oxygen in molecular
and atomic forms
 Only atomic oxygen is found over the height of 200 km
 Exosphere:-
 Extends up to 32,190 km
 Consists of only hydrogen atoms and helium
 Very high temp. due to solar radiation
Classification of atmosphere
Based on chemical reaction
 Chemosphere
 Chemical effects are produced due to solar radiation
 Extends from troposphere to a height of 50 km
 Overlaps with homosphere and heterosphere
 Ozonosphere
 Intense chemical reactions take place with the help of oxygen
 It is possible by the short wave electromagnetic radiations present
 At the lower levels atmosphere is dense
 Molecular oxygen O2 collides with atomic oxygen O forming ozone
Based on ionization
 Ionosphere:-
 80 km to 300 km region
 Ionization produced by solar radiation
 Atoms of nitrogen and oxygen absorb X rays, Gamma rays and uv rays , the input of
energy causes atoms to lose electrons
 Positively charged atoms are ions
 High electrical conductivity occurs
Depletion of Ozone Layer
 Due to human activities ozone layer get thin
 The thinning of this layer is called ozone depletion

Ozone-oxygen cycle
 Ozone layer is located in lower part of stratosphere between 16 km
and 35 km
 Concentration of ozone is the maximum at about 25-30 km.It is 10
ppm
 The level of ozone is maintained by ozone-oxygen cycle
 When uv radiation from sun strikes the oxygen molecule O2, it splits
the molecule into two individual oxygen atoms(O+O)
 Then oxygen atoms combined with O2 molecule and produce ozone
molecule (O3)
 This reaction is aided by either nitrogen or oxygen, which absorbs
the excess energy that is liberalized
 Ozone thus formed will be split by UV rays into a molecule of
oxygen and an atom of oxygen
 Through this repeated circular ozone and oxygen formation that
the concentration of ozone is maintained in the stratosphere
Depletion by CFCs and BFCs

 Chloro Fluro Carbon and Bromo Fluro Carbon

 They are stable compounds in the atmosphere that have
the property of living longer
 Due to their long life, they rise up to the stratosphere
Depletion by Nitric Oxide
▶ One molecule of nitric oxide (NO) combines with ozone
(O3); it gets oxidised to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and
Oxygen (O2).
▶ This NO2 combines with another O3 molecule to
become NO3 (Nitrate) and O2. The NO2 and NO3 then
combine to form N2O5 (Dinitrogen pentoxide). Even the
atomic oxygen
(O) readily combines with NO2 to yield NO3.
▶ Due to this series of actions and reactions, ozone is
completely utilised, and thereby depleted. Large
quantities of nitrogen are emitted by aircrafts that
community decided to withdraw the operation of jet
aircrafts that emit oxides of nitrogen. This step has also
helped in reducing the depletion of ozone to a very large
extent near stratosphere.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

 The GREENHOUSE EFFECT is a natural process that

warms the Earth’s surface.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

 The energy of the Sun is emitted as heat radiations.

 Some of the radiations such as near infrared rays are penetrated &
some heat radiations with longer wavelength are absorbed &
retained by earth’s surface.

 Some of this absorbed heat is the reradiated by the heated earth.

 The temperature of the earth’s surface is determined by the energy
balance between the heat energy reaching the earth’s surface and
heat energy that is radiated back into the space.
 Fossil fuel based industrialisation & man’s degenerative life-style
based on over exploitation of resources like coal, oil & gases
results in unprecedented rise in the concentration of green house
gases like carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs, ozone & water vapour.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

• These green house gases in the lower levels of the atmosphere

will act like the glass of a green house.

• Like glass, they are transparent to the near infrared rays of

short wavelength but are opaque to the heat radiated by the
heated earth of longer wavelength and trap them.

• By not letting the solar rays to escape into the outer space,
greenhouse gases add to the heat that is already present on
the earth’s surface.

• This results in an increase in temperature and commonly known

as greenhouse effect. And on a large scale, this effect is known
as Global warming.
Green House
Effect
▶ Certain physical processes that takes place in the
troposphere are responsible for the weather and climate
of that particular place.
▶ To understand clearly about the process of green house
effect, it is needed to know about Incoming solar radiation
and the outgoing radiation.
a) Incoming Solar Radiation
▶ Atmosphere behaves like a complex mega heat engine. A
large number of processes like air movements (storms
and cyclones), evaporation and formation of clouds,
precipitation, etc. take place in the atmosphere.
▶ Only two in a billionth of the solar energy reaches Earth,
of which only a small portion is responsible for the
physical and biological processes.
Continues..
. ▶ Solar radiation contains X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet
(UV) rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwaves, radio
waves etc.
▶ Of all the energy received by earth: UV, visible and
infrared portions constitute over 95 per cent.
▶ The harmful UV radiation is prevented from reaching earth
by the ozone layer. The solar radiation which ultimately
reaches the earth comprises mainly of visible light, which
is composed of seven colours.
▶ While travelling through the atmosphere, a portion of the
radiation energy is reflected by clouds, and some are
scattered and absorbed by gases and particles. The
scattered radiation that reaches earth is called diffuse
radiation.
▶ Only a small quantity of the scattered radiation (22 per
cent) reaches earth’s surface.
b) Outgoing Radiation
▶ If the entire energy that is received from
sun retained in its earth’s surface, the
planet would be very hot and would
become an inhabitable place.
▶ The earth, after heating up of its surface,
reflects a certain amount of energy. Some
of this heat energy is transmitted to the
upper layers of air through conduction.
▶ The heat energy so emitted from the earth’s
surface is in the form of long wave
radiation, and is called outgoing radiation.
▶ While a portion of the outgoing radiation is
absorbed by certain gases in the
atmosphere and retained as heat energy
and the remaining energy escapes into the
outer space.
b) Continues...

▶ Due to the effect of Green house gases, Earth is

prevented from cooling down drastically. GHGS thus act
like a blanket and provide earth with an ideal climate for
life to flourish.
This known as Green house effect.
▶ The intensity of Green house effect varies from place to
place depending upon the concentration of GHGS.
▶ For instance, the quantity of vapour-and carbon dioxide is
less in dry places like deserts. The usage of carbon
dioxide and the release of oxygen is high in places were
like forests where trees are in abundance.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

They pose the following threats

1. Rise in the global temperature will result in melting of ice

masses in the Artic and Antarctica regions, resulting in
rising of the sea level.
2. With the consequence there would be submergence of
many low lying coastal areas.
3. Flooding of the coastal areas will cause massive soil
erosion and siltation, contamination of water and water
borne diseases.
4. In temperate regions, the summers will be longer and
hotter where as the winters will be shorter and warmer.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

5. The already dry sub-tropical regions may become drier and

the tropical regions may become wetter.
6. Desertification, drought and famine would lead to migration of
population and new urbanisation.
7. Due to increased concentration of carbon dioxide the growth
and yield of plants will increase resulting in rapid depletion of
nutrients from the soil.

8. Disruption of the ecosystem by increase in rainfall (9-10%)

altered crop patterns and adverse effect on flora and fauna.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

• Some other major effects are, the extra water vapour which is
present in the atmosphere falls again as rain which leads to floods
in various regions of the world.

• When the weather turns warmer, evaporation process from both

land and sea rises.

• This leads to drought in the regions where increased evaporation

process is not compensated by increased precipitation.

• In some areas of the world, this will result in crop failure and famine
particularly in areas where the temperatures are already high.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

• The extra water vapour content in the atmosphere will fall again
as extra rain hence causing flood.

• Towns & villages which are dependent on the melting water

from snowy mountains may suffer drought & scarcity of water
supply.

• Global warming can severely affect the health of living beings.

• Excess heat can cause stress which may lead to blood

pressure and heart diseases.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

• Crop failures and famines, which are a direct consequence of

heating up of earth, can cause a decline in human body
resistance to viruses and infections.

• Global warming may also transfer various diseases to other

regions as people will shift from regions of higher temperatures
to regions of comparatively lower temperatures.

• Warmer oceans and other surface waters may lead to severe

cholera outbreaks and harmful infections in some types of sea
food
 GLOBAL WARMING

 Due to the increasing use of

fossil fuels, burning of forest
lands to increase agricultural
production, decaying of
agricultural products and other
human activities, the
concentration of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere has
been increasing, resulting in an
‘enhanced greenhouse effect’
which is often referred to as
global warming.
 CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING
• The major cause of global warming is the greenhouse gases.
• They include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides and in
some cases chlorine and bromine containing compounds.
• The build‐up of these gases in the atmosphere changes the
radiative equilibrium in the atmosphere.
• Their overall effect is to warm the Earth’s surface and the lower
atmosphere because greenhouse gases absorb some of the
outgoing radiation of Earth and re‐radiate it back towards the
surface.
• The second major cause of global warming is the depletion of
ozone layer.
 CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING

• This happens mainly due to the presence of chlorine‐ containing

source gases.

• When ultraviolet light is present, these gases dissociate

releasing chlorine atoms which then catalyses ozone
destruction.

• Aerosols present in the atmosphere are also causing global

warming by changing the climate in two different ways.

• Firstly, they scatter and absorb solar and infrared radiation and
secondly, they may alter the microphysical and chemical
properties of clouds and perhaps affect their lifetime and extent.
CARBON DIOXIDE

 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

is naturally produced when
people and animals
breathe.
 Plants take in and use CO2
to produce their own food.
 It is also returned to the air
as a product of combustion
and decomposition.
METHANE
 METHANE (CH4) is
emitted by natural sources
such as wetlands, as well
as human activities such
as leakage from natural
gas systems and the
raising of livestock.
CLOROFLUOROCARBONS
 CFC’s are anthropogenic
compounds that have been
released into the atmosphere
since 1930s in various
applications such as in air-
conditioning, refrigeration,
blowing agents in foams,
insulations and packing
materials, propellants in
aerosol cans and as solvents.
WATER VAPOR

 WATER VAPOR is the

gaseous phase of water. It
is one state of water within
the hydrosphere.
 Water vapor can be
produced from the
evaporation or boiling of
liquid water or from
sublimation of ice.
NITROUS OXIDE
• NITROUS OXIDES is naturally
present in the atmosphere as
part of the nitrogen cycle and
has a variety of natural sources.
• However, human activities such
as agriculture, fossil fuel
combustion, waste water
management and industrial
processes are increasing the
amount of nitrous oxide in the
atmosphere
Weather
Weather
▶ When radiation from insolation strikes earth, its top layer
gets heated.
▶ The heat energy so created through the interplay of
insolation and outgoing radiation is transferred to the
overlying atmosphere through activities like conduction
and convection.
▶ Due to this, as well as the movement of earth, air moves in
all directions-both horizontally and vertically. This
movement of air is the basis of weather.
▶ Weather is the atmospheric conditions that exist for a
short duration which can span over few hours to a
number of days. Weather conditions can fluctuate very
often.
▶ The average weather or atmospheric conditions over a
fairly long period of time like months, years or even
decades; in a particular area is called climate.
▶ Before discussing in detail about climate, certain other
Temperature

▶ Temperature is the index of heat that is sensible. It

indicates the kinetic energy of molecules, or the speed
at which the molecules moves.
▶ While in air and water, molecules keep on moving and
change their location very often and in solids the
molecules involve in a vibration movement and not
moving.
▶ The speed at which this vibration takes place is
described as temperature.
▶ A body having higher temperature has the property
of transmitting it to another one having lower
temperature.
▶ Temperature is measured using thermometer, and is
reported in either Celsius, Kelvin or Fahrenheit scales.
Temperature Variations in
Troposphere
The earth’s temperature varies in an altitudinal and horizontal
manner in the troposphere. A fair knowledge about this
altitudinal variation is ideal to understand more about weather
and climates.
1. Altitudinal Variation:

▶ In the troposphere, temperature decreases with height.

It decreases at a rate of -6.4°C/km. This rate at which
temperature decreases with height is called lapse rate.
The lapse rate is not uniform and it varies due to
different conditions like pollution in the atmosphere.
2. Horizontal Temperature Variation
Temperature varies at different times of the day at different
locations due to various reasons and factors. It also varies
at different months and seasons of the year. A few reasons
for this variation are discussed as follows:

(a)The hour of the day: More solar energy is received during

the noon, when sun’s rays strike vertically overhead; than
hours in the morning hours, when the rays strike at angles.
(b)Insolation: The phenomenon of day and night occurs as a
result of the revolution and rotation of earth. Due to revolution
one half of the globe is exposed to sunlight and the other half
is in darkness. The temperature of any given area is based on
the insolation of that area. The length of daylight and the angle
at which the rays fall on earth also determine the amount of
insolation and the temperature of that particular area.
Continu
es...
(c)Distance from the Equator: The sun rays strike in
perpendicular manner on the equator. Near to the poles it
strikes at an angle. Due to this, areas farther away from
equator will experience lesser temperature as compared to
the areas near the equator.
(d)The tilt of the axis: The earth’s axis is tilted at angle of 66½
degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. This tilt is maintained
throughout its orbit. This tilting of the axis leads to seasonal
variations. Due to this, the months closer to June are summer
months in this hemisphere. During this period, the northern
hemisphere receives greater amount of solar energy, and
hence, higher temperature. Places near to the equator receive
more solar energy resulting in higher temperature
Continues...

(e) The Surface: The heating of earth’s surface differs

according to the type of the surface in an area. For instance,
rocky surfaces get heated rapidly, while water takes
considerably long time to get heated up. In the same way,
rocky surfaces loose heat rapidly as against water which
loose heat slowly. In any given place, different types of
surfaces exist. Hence, there will be a mixture of heating and
cooling properties.
Wind
 Wind is the movement of air
 Wind is generated through a complex process that
includes conduction, convection and rotation of earth
Conduction
 Air in the surroundings is heated due to the solar
energy received by the surface
 When the overlying air molecules are heated, it
becomes less dense and move upward .
convection
 As the heated air moves up the relatively cool air in the
surroundings move in to occupy the space vacated by
the hot air.
 In this way the heat energy is transferred by air currents
is called convection
Wind formation
 The solar radiation received by earth is not uniform
 Air gets heated or cooled differently at different areas
 This leads to varying pressure
 As the surface gets heated the heat is transferred to air
and it will become light
 The light air tends to move upward and pressure is low
at the area
 Air from high pressure area is moving to low pressure
area
Types of wind
1. Sea-land breeze
 The insolation heats both the water surface and land surface
during day time
 The air on water surface become cooler than air over the land
surfaces
 Due to this temp. difference air over the water will be denser
than of land
 This will trigger a movement of air from water surface
towards the land surfaces
 This movement of air is called sea-breeze
 This may occur during night time

2. Mountain-valley winds
3. Gravity winds
Types of wind
1. Sea-land breeze
2. Mountain-valley winds
 When there is a clear night sky on the mountains, lands in high altitude
cools down
 This leads to cooling of overlying air
 This cool air is dense and tend to slide down the slopes towards the valleys
and other low lands surrounding the mountains
 This flow of air is called mountain breeze
 Due to the action of mountain breeze, the mornings in the valley bottom
becomes colder than the hillsides
 During day time the mountain slopes and consequently the overlying air
gets heated up
 The heated air will move up the mountain slope towards the top
 This flow of air from the slopes to the top of the mountains is called valley
breeze
3. Gravity winds
 These winds occur on steep mountain slopes
 Due to the action of gravity, the dense cold air from higher altitudes moves
down steep slopes
 Gravity winds could be destructive at times
CYCLONES
 CYCLONE
 Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric
pressure surrounded by high
atmospheric pressure resulting in
swirling atmospheric disturbance
accompanied by powerful winds blowing
in anticlockwise direction in the
Northern Hemisphere and in the
clockwise direction in the Southern
Hemisphere.

 They occur mainly in the tropical and

temperate regions of the world.
Cyclones
▶ The atmospheric pressure in a given area has an important role to play
with respect to the formation of a cyclone. When a flow of air moves
along curved isobars which is a net centripetal acceleration pulls it
toward the centre of a curvature, making the air to rotate. Such wind
(called gradient wind) is called cyclone
▶ If the movement of the gradient wind is in the anticlockwise
direction in the northern hemisphere. it is called cyclone and
anticyclone in southern hemisphere.
▶ In the southern hemisphere, the clockwise motion of gradient wind is
called cyclone and anticyclone in northern hemisphere.
▶ During a cyclone, the surface air moves towards the centre having
low pressure and hence converges. The converged air has the
property of ascending in the centre within the low pressure area.
▶ The reverse happens in a high pressure area. Air tends to sink in the
centre of a high pressure area during anticyclones.
 CYCLONES
Cyclones are known by different names in
different parts of the world:
Typhoons in the Northwest Pacific Ocean
west of the dateline
Hurricanes in the North Atlantic Ocean,
the Northeast Pacific Ocean east of the
dateline, or the South Pacific Ocean.
Tropical cyclones in the Southwest
Pacific Ocean and Southeast and
Southwest Indian Ocean.
Severe cyclonic storm (the North Indian
Ocean)
Willie‐Willie in Australia
Tornado in South America
 TYPES OF CYCLONES
 Tropical, Polar and Meso cyclones
 What they all have in common is that they are spinning storms rotating
around that low ‐pressure center.
Tropical cyclones
 cyclones that occur over tropical ocean regions.
 Egs: Hurricanes and typhoons are types of tropical cyclones.
 Hurricanes are found in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, typhoons are found
in the Northwest Pacific.
 If you hear 'tropical cyclone,' you should assume that it's occurring in the
South Pacific or Indian Ocean
 Tropical cyclones based on their wind speeds: They are called category 1, 2,
3, 4 or 5, increasing with intensity and wind speed as the number increases.
 A category 1 cyclone is the weakest, with wind speeds of 74‐95 mph. A
category 5 cyclone, on the other hand, is extremely dangerous and has the
potential for major damage.
 Category 5 cyclones have wind speeds of 155 mph and above!
 TropicalCycloneformation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2UDbDXXYGE&t=18s
 TYPES OF CYCLONES

Polar cyclones
 are cyclones that occur in Polar Regions like Greenland, Siberia and
Antarctica.
 Unlike tropical cyclones, polar cyclones are usually stronger in
winter months.
 They also occur in areas that aren't very populated, so any damage
they do is usually pretty minimal.
 TYPES OF CYCLONES

Mesocyclone
 is when part of a thunderstorm cloud starts to spin, which may
eventually lead to a tornado.
 Tornadoes all come from thunderstorm clouds, but not all
thunderstorm clouds make tornadoes.
 In order for a tornado to occur, part of that cloud has to spin, and
though you can't really see this happening, this is the
intermediate, or 'meso' step from regular cloud to dangerous
spinning cloud running along the ground.
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
CYCLONES
1. Strong winds
2. Exceptional rain
3. Storm surge
 Cyclones are generally accompanied by strong winds which
cause a lot of destruction.
 In some cases it is accompanied by heavy downpour and also
the rise in the sea which intrudes inland there by causing
floods.
 DEVELOPMENT OF CYCLONES
Development of a cyclone covers three stages namely
a) Formation and initial development state:
Four atmospheric/ oceanic conditions are necessary for the formation of
a cyclone namely:
 A warm sea temperature in excess of 26 degree centigrade, to a
depth of 60 meters, which provides abundant water vapour in the air
by evaporation.
 High relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated by to a
height of about 7000 meters, facilitates condensation of water vapor
into droplets and clouds, releases heat energy and induces drop in
pressure.
 Atmospheric instability (an above average decrease of temperature
with altitude) encourages considerable vertical cumulus cloud
convection when condensation of rising air occurs.
Development of Cyclone
 DEVELOPMENT OF CYCLONES
b) Fully matured
 The main feature of a fully mature tropical cyclone is a spiral pattern
of highly turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud bands.
 These bands spiral inwards and form a dense highly active central
cloud core which raps around a relatively calm zone. This is called
the “eye” of a cyclone.
 The eye looks like a black hole or a dot surrounded by thick clouds.
The outer circumference of the thick cloud is called the ‘eye wall’.
 DEVELOPMENT OF CYCLONES
c) Weakening or decay
 A tropical cyclone begins to weaken as soon as its source of warm
moist air is abruptly cut off.
 This is possible when the cyclone hits the land, on the cyclone moves
to a higher altitude or when there is the interference of another low
pressure.
 Depending on their track on the warm tropical sea and proximity to
land a cyclone may last for less than 24 hours to more than 3 weeks.
 On an average the life cycle of a cyclone (a cyclone to complete these
three stages mentioned above) takes six days.
 The longest cyclone is typhoon John which lasted for 31 days (August
to September, 1994 in the north east and north west pacific basins).
 INDIAN CYCLONES
 The 7516.6 kilometers long Indian coastline is the earth’s most cyclone
battered stretch of the world.
 Around 8 per cent of the total land area in India is prone to cyclones.
 About two‐third of the cyclones that occur in the Indian coastline occur
in the Bay of Bengal. The states which are generally affected in the east
coast are West‐Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh; Tamil Nadu and on the
west coast Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala
Atmospheric
Circulations
▶ When Earth rotates on its axis, the rotation causes the
deflection in the wind flow due to Coriolis force.
▶ In addition to this, a low pressure belt is formed over the
tropical regions, since the equatorial region is heated
throughout the year. This belt is called the Inter-Tropical
Convergent Zone (ITCZ). This zone is also known as
doldrums.
▶ This is not a conspicuous belt, but a discontinuous one that
fluctuates in its position and intensity.
Atmospheric Circulations
Continues...
▶ Even with disruptions like weather fronts and storms, there is a
consistent pattern to how air moves around our planet’s
atmosphere. This pattern, called atmospheric circulation.
▶ This is caused because the Sun heats the Earth more at the
equator than at the poles. It’s also affected by the spin of the
Earth.
▶ In the tropics, near the equator, warm air rises. When it gets
about 10-15 km (6-9 miles) above the Earth surface it starts to
flow away from the equator and towards the poles.
▶ Air that rose just north of the equator flows north. Air that
rose just south of the equator flows south.
▶ When the air cools, it drops back to the ground, flows back
towards the Equator, and warm again. The, now, warmed air
rises again, and the pattern repeats. This pattern, known as
convection, happens on a global scale. It also happens on a
small scale within individual storms.
The Indian Monsoon

• Monsoon is a regional wind that blows towards land at a

certain season and blow from the landmasses during
other season.
• These wind blows in the opposite direction in summer and
winter.
• Though monsoon winds blow over all parts of the world, it
is well-developed over India and the South-east Asian
regions.
• The Indian subcontinent has two types of winds.
1. South-West Monsoon
2. North-East Monsoon
1. South-West Monsoon

▶ The south-east trade winds originate from the southern

hemisphere in the Indian Ocean. When these winds
cross the equator, they get deflected towards the right by
the Coriolis force, becoming the south-west trade winds.
These winds gather large quantities of moisture as they
pass over the Indian Ocean.
▶ As the SW monsoon winds approaches the Indian
Peninsula, they are diverted into two-the Arabian Sea
Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch.
▶ When the moisture laden Arabian Sea branch reaches
the south-western side of India, they are blocked by the
Western Ghats.
Continues…

▶ When the mountain range blocks the horizontal flow, the wind
ascends along the slope of the mountain range, gets cooled
down and form clouds. These clouds then results in
precipitation.
▶ Kerala gets the south-west monsoon mostly during early June
every year.
▶ These winds then take a west turn and continue their journey,
and spread over the northern parts of India bringing in rains to
these areas.
▶ Monsoon winds normally reach Delhi in the first week of July
and could last till end September/early October.
2. North-East Monsoon
▶ The Inter-Tropical Convergent Zone (ITCZ) moves to the
south of the equator, when the position of the sun shifts to the
southern hemisphere. This leads to the reversal of winds, and
the winds start blowing from the north-eastern direction
towards the ITCZ. These winds are known as the north-east
monsoon winds or the north-east trade winds.
▶ Since North-East winds originate mainly from the land masses
of the north-east region of India, they are relatively dry.
▶ When these winds pass over the Bay Bengal towards south,
they gather moisture and cause rainfalls over parts of Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
▶ Cyclone formation is common over Bay of Bengal during the
north-east monsoon season. The cyclones also bring in
abundant rainfall over Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telengana and
Tamil Nadu.
 HYDROSPHERE
• The hydrosphere contains all the water
Found on our planet.
• Forms over 70 percent of the earth’s
surface(about 3,62,000 km2
• Water found under the surface of our
planet includes water trapped in the soil
and groundwater.
• Water found in our atmosphere includes
water vapor.
• Frozen water on our planet includes ice
caps and glaciers.
•Only about 3% of the water on Earth is
“fresh” water, and about 70% of the fresh
water is frozen in the form of glacial ice.
Subcomponents of hydrosphere are connected via the hydrologic
cycle
Hydrosphere
Water in Oceans
 Is saline in nature
 Salinity occurs due to dissolved materials(mainly salts)
 Salinity of seawater is around 34.7 g Kg-1
 Seawater contains a mixture of several dissociated
salts, NaCl
 Seawater salinity is stable due to various mechanisms
that remove from salt from the oceans
 Local variations of salinity due to conditions like
evaporation of water, precipitations and arrival of fresh
water from land, ice freezing etc.
 Oceans also influence climates through their ability to
absorb solar energy and transfer it around the world
through oceanic circulations
Oceanic Circulations
 Water in oceans is constantly in movement in regular patterns due to activity of
winds
 These movements of water in oceans are called ocean circulations or ocean
currents
 These currents arise due to the interplay of wind and water
 The speed of air currents is about 10 km/hr
 Most of the wind-driven surface currents occur parallel to the major wind
systems
 The northeast and southeast trade winds drive water westward along the
equator
 This is known as the equatorial current
 In the Atlantic Ocean , the equatorial current flows into South America
 In the Pacific Ocean this current flows into the East Indies
 On reaching these places both these currents divide into two parts , with one
flowing south and other north
 These currents move away from the equator through continental edges
 These currents then influenced by westerlies, and flow eastward
 Due to this gigantic whirlpools occur
Ocean currents are known by specific names
 Gulf Stream
 It starts in the Gulf of Mexico, and flows into the Atlantic at the tip of Florida
 Gulf stream is an intense, warm ocean current in the Western North Atlantic Ocean
 The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to
Newfoundland and the west coast of Europe
 The canary current
 The Canary Current is a wind-driven surface current that is part of the North Atlantic Gyre.
 This eastern boundary current branches south from the North Atlantic Current and flows southwest
about as far a as Senegal where it turns west and later joins the Atlantic North Equatorial Current.
 The current is named after the Canary Islands.
 North Equatorial current
 The North Equatorial Current (NEC) is a westward wind-driven current mostly located near the
equator, but the location varies from different oceans.
 The NEC in the Pacific and the Atlantic is about 5°-20°N, while the NEC in the Indian Ocean is very
close to the equator.
 It ranges from the sea surface down to 400 m in the western Pacific.
 South Equatorial current
 The South Equatorial Current are ocean currents in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean that
flow east-to-west between the equator and about 20 degrees south.
 In the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, it extends across the equator to about 5 degrees north.
 West wind drift
 Is a current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antartica
 Oceans as Moderator of Climate
 Oceans as Heat Reservoir
 Ocean as Carbon Reservoir
 Oceans and Sea Ice
 Sea ice plays an important in the Earth’s climate system
 Polar Oceans are considered as the lings of the world ocean
 Sea ice has higher reflection capacity
 Water in Land
 Water is found in all the three states
 In liquid form water is found in lakes, rivers and streams and also ground
water and soil moisture
 Fresh water in earth is perpetually being interchanged between the surface
of the earth and atmosphere by a process of evaporation and precipitation
 This interchange is known as water cycle or hydrological cycle
Biosphere

 Consist of complex interdependency between biotic and

abiotic environmental components
 Biosphere is thin envelope that encircles most of the
earth, and supports life
 It is the global sphere in which the biota interacts with
lithosphere , atmosphere and hydrosphere
 Biosphere is a giant ecosystem that consists of two
major ecosystems
 Terrestrial ecosystem
 Aquatic ecosystem
Terrestrial Ecosystem
 The terrestrial ecosystem consists of plants, animals,
microorganisms their dependencies and
interdependencies with the non-living items around it
on the land
 Natural terrestrial ecosystem
 This consists of mountains, grass lands, forests, semi-arid
areas, deserts, tundra and islands
 When there was no human intervention the ecosystem was
sustainable

 Artificial terrestrial ecosystem

 Emerged due to industrial development and increased needs
of the human population
 Eg : crop fields and garden ecosystems
Aquatic Ecosystem

 Consists of
 marine ecosystems
 Seas and oceans form the marine ecosystem

 fresh water ecosystems

 Rivers, pond, lakes, and wetlands form fresh water ecosystem