EARTHSCI

FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Big Bang Theory - is a scientific explanation of the beginning of the universe from a tiny,
extremely dense point in time-space.
 Two major evidence:
o Hubble’s Law - Describes the relationship between a galaxy’s distance from Earth
and its speed.
 The farther from Earth, the faster its speed.
o Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) - The CMB is a remnant of the first light
that emerge since the beginning of the universe.
 According to NASA, the CMB can be detected as a part on antenna TVs.
o Abundance of H and He in the universe. - All prevalent H and He were formed
when the universe cooled down after the Big Bang.
 Implies that the universe began on a hot state.

Solar System - is the collection of celestial bodies captured by the Sun’s gravity. Planets of the
Solar System; Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus & Neptune.
 The Sun formed 4.57 billion years ago from a gravitational collapse.
o This collapse led to the formation of the protostar (young star). The gravitational
influence results in the accumulation of mass, which in turn increases gravity
(accretion).
 Rocky planets are formed, mostly, through the collision of asteroids, etc.
 Gas giants are formed when most of the surrounding material is, mostly, H and He.

Characteristics of Earth - The proper configuration of these characteristics allows the

existence of life on Earth.
 Temperature
o Affects the speed at which atoms and molecules move. Directly affects the rate of
reaction, based on the collision theory.
o The distance of Earth from the Sun allows adequate heating of the surface.
o Directly affects the state of matter (e.g. water).
 Water
o Liquid water allows the existence of life
o Used in many biological processes.
o The primitive ocean/seas host the first living things.
o Aquatic environment may have allowed the environment for the biological
molecules to spontaneously form (RNA world).
 Atmosphere
o One of the most unique characteristics of Earth is its “adequate” atmosphere –
not too thin, not too thick.
o The greenhouse gases that compose the primitive atmosphere allow the trapping
of heat.
o The gradual reduction of greenhouse gas (methane) is responsible for cooling
down the surface.
o The presence of ozone layer blocks harmful UV rays, creating a haven for life.
 Energy
o The transparency of the atmosphere to light allows photon energy to reach the
surface, and be captured by photoautotrophs.
o In some cases, the energy within the Earth “leaks” to the surface, usually in
volcanos (terrestrial and submarine), trenches, etc.
  Nutrients
o These are elements/molecules that are essential for life.
o CHONPS and some minerals are essential to various biological processes.
 Carbon = backbone of all biological molecules.
 Hydrogen = associated with almost all biomolecules (e.g. carbohydrates).
 Oxygen = mostly used as an electron donor for various biological processes.
 Nitrogen = mostly used as a part of proteins and nucleic acids.
 Phosphorous = mostly used on membranes, and energy units.
 Sulfur = found in some proteins.

Earth’s Subsystems - The subsystems of Earth are distinct yet intertwined with each other.
Together, these subsystems control the flow of mass and energy.
 ATMOSPHERE
o Atmosphere is the gaseous part of the Earth. It regulates temperature and
protects the surface from radiation.
o This subsystem acts as the blanket of the Earth.
o Its importance includes the following:
 Insulation and regulation of temperature.
 Supplies O2, CO2, and N to living things.
 Intermediary of Water Cycle.
 Shielding of Earth from UV radiation and small meteorites.
o The layers of the atmosphere:
 EXOSPHERE (965km-10,000km) Outermost and upper limit of the
atmosphere.
 IONOSPHERE (600km-965km) Layer with an abundance of electrons and
ionized atoms and molecules.
 THERMOSPHERE (85km-600km) Aurora and satellites are usually found in
this layer.
 MESOSPHERE (50km-85km) Meteors burn up in this layer.
 STRATOSPHERE (14.5km–50km) Ozone layer is found here which absorbs
and scatters the Sun’s harmful UV radiation.
 TROPOSPHERE (0km-14.5km) Most weather conditions are found in this
layer. The lower level includes most climate system.

 LITHOSPHERE
o Pertains to the solid part of the Earth. It is composed of naturally occurring
minerals and rocks. It includes the continental and oceanic crust and all other
layers of the Earth’s interior. Despite its solid nature, the geosphere is a dynamic
sphere where the surface is in constant motion.
o The layers of the lithosphere: Crust, Mantle, and Core.
o For life, the soil is one of the most important features of the lithosphere. It is
produced by various processes that last for a long period of time.

 HYDROSPHERE
o Hydrosphere is the liquid part of the Earth. It regulates temperature and supplies
fresh water to the terrestrial environment.
o Zonation of a water body:
 A. Horizontal zoning:
1. Littoral zone
2. Limnetic zone
3. Pelagic zone
  B. Vertical zoning:
1. Photic zone
2. Aphotic zone
3. Pelagic zone
4. Benthic zone

 BIOSPHERE
o Biosphere is the living part of the Earth. All living things are the primary medium
of energy and mass transfer/cycle.
o Environmental factors - are external variables that affects living things. It is easier
understood if it’s seen as a “set” of parameters in a given area. It has two types:
 Biotic Factors – Environmental factors that emanates from other living
things. It includes vegetation, presence of prey/predator, symbiotic
relationship, and other similar variables involved in life.
 Abiotic Factors – Environmental factors that comes from non-living things -
the “environment.” Examples include weather/climate,
precipitation/humidity, presence of specific gases (O2, CO2, N, etc.),
sunlight, and many other non-living variables.
 Biomes are biogeographical units comprising of large areas with a distinct
climate (abiotic) and specially adapted living organisms (biotic).
 Terrestrial - Tropical Rainforest, Savanna, Desert, Chaparral,
Temperate Grassland, Northern Coniferous Forest (taiga), Temperate
Broadleaf Forest, Tundra
 Aquatic - Lake, Wetland, Streams and Rivers, Estuaries, Intertidal
Zones, Marine Pelagic Zone, Marine Benthic Zone

BROAD CATEGORIES OF ROCKS CHARACTERISTICS

Rocks - are naturally occurring solid aggregates of many minerals. It differ in the ratio or
concentration of their components.
 Igneous Rocks
o are formed when magma/lava cooled down and solidifies.
o Igneous rocks are divided into two types:
 Intrusive Igneous Rocks - are formed when the magma below the surface
slowly cools down and solidified.
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks - the magma below the surface slowly cools down
and solidified.

 Sedimentary Rocks
o are formed when the magma below the surface slowly cools down and solidified.
It can be divided into three types:
 Clastic sedimentary rock - are formed from the mechanical weathering of
rocks. A well-known example is a sandstone, which is made up of sand
particles that are cemented and dried.
 Chemical sedimentary rock - are sedimentary rocks that are formed
through chemical reactions. A common example is rock salt, which is made
up of Na and Cl ions that have bonded and solidified as the saltwater
evaporates.
 Organic sedimentary rock - are formed from the mechanical weathering of
rocks, formed from the build-up of plant or animal debris.
  Metamorphic rocks
o are formed when other rocks (parent rock) undergoes metamorphism due to
heat and pressure.
o Metamorphism is the process where heat and pressure causes a profound change
in the physical and chemical properties of the rock.
o Metamorphic rocks may be divided into two types:
 Foliated - have visible layers, striation, or bands.
 Non-foliated - do not have foliation, striation or bands.

COMPONENTS OF ROCKS PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

 Minerals
o are important component of the Earth’s lithosphere. These are, essentially, the
crystal aggregates of elements.
o minerals are the crystalline form of elements.
o these are obtained from the lithosphere through the mining of rocks and
processing for minerals,
o thus, they possess tangible physical properties.
o the physical properties of minerals are closely associated with the chemical
properties of their elementary components weak molecular bonding results in
brittleness.
 Examples of Minerals:
 Hematite is used in door hinges and handles.
 Copper is used in electrical wiring.
 Gold is used in jewelry.
 Feldspar is used in ceramics and porcelains.
 Fluoride is used in toothpaste.

 Chemical Properties of Minerals

o The chemical properties of minerals are closely associated with the minerals’
elementary components.
o Dana Classification System arranges all minerals according to their chemical
compositions;
 Native Elements - are minerals that are naturally occurring in an
uncombined form with a distinct mineral structure.
 Silicates - are the largest groups of minerals, their key components are Si,
O, and a metal.
 Sulfates - are composed of sulfate (SO) and a metal. These minerals tend to
be soft and translucent.
 Carbonates - are minerals that are made up of carbonate (CO) and a
metallic element.
 Phosphates - are minerals composed of phosphate (PO) and an element or
compound.
 Sulfides - are minerals primarily composed of S2- and usually a metal.
 Halides - are minerals composed of halogens and a metal. In general, these
are very soft and soluble in water.
 Oxides - are minerals formed by the combination of O and an element.
 Mineraloids/Organic minerals - are substances that do not conform to the
previous categories.
 Physical Properties of minerals:
 Crystal habit - is the shape of the mineral.
o Common terms:
 Equant – equal lengths on three dimensions.
 Elongate – one dimension is longer compared to the other two.
 Platy – flattened, thin crystals.
 Prismatic – resembles a prism (identical base and lateral sides).
 Luster - refers to how light is reflected on the surface of the mineral it disregards
the color of light rays, but only how it reflects light either diffuse or specular.
o A metallic luster occurs with specular reflection, while a non-metallic luster
is a diffuse reflection.
 Cleavage - is the tendency to break along smooth planes, flat, and shiny surfaces,
molecular bonds on those lines are weaker.
 Fracture - is the tendency to break along random irregular surface directions.
 Hardness - measures the minerals’ resistance to scratching.
 Moh’s Scale of Hardness - is the ranking of minerals based on relative
hardness.
 Color - refers to the property of light upon reflection.
 Streak - is the color of the mineral powder, which may or may not be similar to
the color reflected by the mineral, it may be obtained by scratching the mineral
on a white porcelain streak plate.
 Magnetism - is a property of some minerals, allowing them to interact with
magnetic fields.
 Striations - refer to the presence of very thin, parallel grooves. Commonly
associated with cleaving minerals.
 Specific Gravity - is the ratio between the density of the mineral and a fluid
(usually water).
 Taste, Odor, Feel – some minerals are able to interact with our senses. Rock salt,
sulfates, and talc.

 Important Minerals in our Daily Lives

 Minerals are used by humans in many different ways. Some of the uses of minerals are
in households, agriculture, industry, construction, medicine, and the energy sector.
o Household - Some minerals are used in the household setting:
 Toothpaste (fluorite)
 Talc powder (talc)
 Rock Salt (salt)
 Kitchen Wares (Al & Cr)
 Gadgets (Si, Ag, Au)
 Electrical Wiring (Cu)
o Agriculture - Some minerals are used in the agricultural setting:
 Mineral fertilizers contain N, P and K, all of which are essential nutrients
for plant development.
o Industry - Some minerals are used in the industrial setting:
 Tools (Ti)
 Prosthetics (Ti)
 Titanium is a light, sturdy and has high resistance to corrosion, resulting to
its outstanding biocompatibility in prosthetics.
o Construction - Some minerals are used in the construction set:
 Structural Support uses carbon steel (Fe + C).
 Concrete is a mixture of CaCO/CaO and a cement mix.
 Window uses silicon (Si) and quartz (SiO).
 Flooring (SiO, CaCO/MgO)
 o Medicine - Some minerals are used in the medical setting:
 Calcium is used to grow, develop, and maintain bones.
 Magnesium is used as a substrate for some enzymes.
 Zinc is used by the zinc finger proteins to perform its diverse function.
 Iron is used in the production of heme, the precursor for hemoglobin

Fossil Fuels
 are non-renewable sources of energy.
 It is primarily used in the generation of electricity, used in transportation, and used as a
heating source to cook food.
 Like all natural resources, fossil fuels are abundant in nature. However, they take
millions of years before they are formed – currently there are no means to replenish the
supply.

 Natural resources that originates from the remains of plants and animals that died
millions of years ago.
o Carbon is the primary element found in life, thus the primary component of
fossil fuels are carbon.

 Types of Fossil Fuels:

o Solid fossil fuels - are formed in areas where forest trees, plants, and marshes
existed before being buried and compressed by sediments, etc. for millions of
years.
 Coal - are sedimentary rocks formed when the fossil remains become
embedded to various rocks. They are often used in coal powerplant as a
source of fuel.
o Liquid fossil fuels - are widely used in the human society, specifically in the
transportation.
 Oil - is formed when algae, plankton, etc. are buried under a layer of mud
at the bottom of sea and lakes.
o Gaseous fossil fuels - that are formed as a by product of sedimentary rock
formation and other marine microorganism.
 Natural Gases - are primarily used in generation of electricity and in
household as a source of fire for cooking, etc.

 Formation of Fossil Fuels

o originated from the remains of the biosphere. These remains are continuously
buried by sediments over time.
o all fossil fuels are formed when organic materials are buried under a thick layer of
sediments, for over millions of year.
o Three major components in the formation of fossil fuels:
 Organic Material – the type of OM greatly affects the type of fossil fuel
formed.
 Overlaying of Sediments – Continuous overlaying of sediments increases
the compressive pressure experienced by the OM deposit.
 Heat – Thermal energy radiating from the mantle promotes chemical
change (thermolysis) on the sediment and OM deposit.
  Fossil Fuels as Source of Energy
o All fossil fuels have high amounts of chemical energy that can be converted into
electrical or mechanical energy.
o There are different structures with specific designs to properly harvest the
chemical energy stored in the fossil fuel, however the principle of generating
electricity is the same:
 Coal power plants use coal as its main fuel. Contributes to around 40% of
total energy produced.
 Natural gas power plant use natural gas (methane). Contributes to around
25% of total energy.
 Oil derivatives (petroleum) are generally not used to produce electricity,
but as a fuel for transportation
 Mechanism that produces electricity:
o Fossil fuels undergoes combustion (burned).
o The heat produces is used to boil (evaporate) water into steam.
o The steam naturally moves upward, rotating a turbine connected to a generator.
o As the turbine rotates, the generator produces energy.

Renewable Energy Resources

 are any natural process that occurs on Earth that are currently being used in the
generation of electricity, renewable since they occur frequently.
 2 Renewable Energy Resources:

o Geothermal Energy is one of the famous renewable energy resource. It harness the heat
or thermal energy deep below the Earth’s crust, where magma flows. Hot springs are
some of the most common application of geothermal energy. The heat from the magma
radiates to a pool of water, which are then used for relaxation or bath.
 Geothermal energy has three main elements:
 Heat Source - usually magma.
 Reservoir - permeable rocks for storage of water.
 Geothermal Fluid – groundwater near the heat source.
 Thermal energy (magma)-> kinetic energy (steam) -> kinetic energy (turbine) ->
electrical energy (generator)
 Pros: Unlimited power, No CO2 emission, Green energy.
 Cons: High upfront cost, Requires significant amount of research and planning,
Highly dependent on the availability of geothermal energy, Operation of GPP may
introduce toxic materials to the surface.

o Hydroelectric Energy harness the flow of water due to gravity - from upstream to
downstream. Watermills are the predecessors of hydroelectric powerplants. It converts
the flow of water into a certain mechanical work in lumber mills, milling grains, and
others.
 Hydroelectric power plants have three main elements:
 Reservoir – a pool of water, ready to fall down.
 Dam – a structure to control the flow of water.
 Electric plant – the site where electricity is produced.
 Potential Energy (gravity) -> Kinetic Energy (water) -> Kinetic Energy (turbine) ->
Electrical Energy (generator)
 Pros: Unlimited power, No CO2 emission, Green energy, Can be built as part of a
dam, Efficient.
 Cons: High upfront cost, Requires significant amount of research and planning,
Highly dependent on the availability of water, May cause extensive environmental
damage, Vulnerable to draught.