Earth Science

EARTH SYSTEM
-is essentially a closed system. It receives energy from the sun and returns some of
this energy to space.

*GEOSPHERE
-The portion of Earth that includes the interior structure, rocks and minerals,
landforms, and all physical processes on land that shape the Earth’s surface.
-All the continents and ocean floor are also considered parts of the geosphere.
-Scientists that study this part of earth are called geologists.
Earth’s Internal Structure
-The interior structure of the Earth is composed of different layers , each with unique
features.
3 main layers:
*Crust *Mantle *Core
-The Crust is like the skin of an apple. It is very thin in comparison to the other
layers of Earth.
-The crust is only about 3-5 miles (8 kilometers) thick under the oceans(oceanic crust)
and about 25 miles (32 kilometers) thick under the continents (continental crust).
-Most of the crust is composed of eight elements namely: 1. Oxygen 2. Silicon 3.
Aluminum 4. Iron 5. Calcium 6. Sodium 7. Potassium 8. Magnesium
The mantle is the solid rock and is the largest part of Earth.
-Earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of 2,886 kilometers
(1,793 mi).
-It lies between the extremely hot core and the thin outer layer of the crust.
-The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth's volume.
-It is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous fluid.
The outer core of the Earth is a liquid layer about 2,266 kilometers thick.
-It is made of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni).
The inner core is the Earth's innermost part and according to seismological studies, it
has been believed to be primarily a solid ball with a radius of about 1220 kilometers,
or 768 miles (about 70% of the Moon's radius).
-It is composed of an iron–nickel alloy and some light elements.
Mohorovicic discontinuity or simply Moho
-Just above the upper mantle and still part of the crust.
• It was termed as discontinuity because the seismic waves behaved differently as they
traveled through this layer.
• Moho is now recognized as the transitional boundary that divides the crust and the
mantle.
Andrija Mohorovicic (1857-1936) -was an Croatian meteorologist and seismologist who
suggested that there are lies a boundary between the crust and boundary and was later
named as the Mohorovicic discontinuity or the Moho.
Gutenberg discontinuity
-serves as a transitional boundary between the lower mantle and the outer core.
• This boundary does not remain constant because of changes in heat flow.
• When heat in mantle dissipates, the molten core gradually solidifies and shrinks,
moving this boundary deeper and deeper within Earth’s core.
Beno Gutenberg (1889-1960) -was a German seismologist who discovered the Gutenberg
boundary.
Lehmann discontinuity
-is a transitional boundary between the inner and outer core.
Inge Lehmann (1888-1993) -was a Danish seismologist who in 1936, asserted that Earth’s
core is not just a single molten sphere but it comes with a solid inner core based on
seismic data.

*Atmosphere
-is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
-The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon,
and trace amount of other gases.
One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is
redistributed is through atmospheric circulation.
-There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.
The Four Layers of the Atmosphere
-the troposphere, where we live;
-the stratosphere, which contains the ozone layer;
-the mesosphere, where meteors burn; and
-the thermosphere, where satellites orbit Earth
Troposphere
-this layer is considered to be the densest among the other layers. Because
temperatures drops with altitude, warm air on the surface of Earth rises readily.
-Air molecules travel up and back down causing the formation of clouds and eventually
rain from the moisture in the air.
-Almost all weather variations occur within the troposphere.
-prior to reaching the next layer above the troposphere is a thin buffer zone called
the tropopause.
Stratosphere
-the air in this layer has strong , steady horizontal winds which is advantageous to
long distance flights.
-At its upper region is the ozone layer at about 6.2 miles or about 33 000 feet above
Earth’s surface which contain a high concentration of ozone.
-another thin buffer zone exists before the next layer above the stratosphere and this
zone is called the stratopause.
Mesosphere
-this is the layer above the stratosphere.
-The temperature here reaches a minimum of -90 °C and is considered to be the coldest
layer. This layer is important in protecting the Earth from planetary debris.
-the thin buffer zone above the mesosphere is called the mesopause.
-This zone is actually the coldest region in the atmosphere.
Thermosphere
-this layer is the hottest layer because of its absorption of highly energetic solar
heat.
-the lower part of the thermosphere is the ionosphere where most collision of oxygen
and nitrogen particles are electrically charged by the solar wind.
-Solar wind is a stream of energized, charged particles flowing from the sun.
Charged particles- are called ions, consists of protons and electrons with high kinetic
energy and the high temperature of the corona.
-there exists a thermopause above the thermosphere that also serves as a buffer zone
which separates the thermosphere from space.

*Hydrosphere
-About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in
the form of ocean water. Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the
form of ice, and the remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater
Characteristics of Water
1. Water could be in liquid form, not just solid and gas.
2. Water has a neutral pH.
3. Water is a good conductor of heat and energy.
4. Water has a specific heat.
5. Water is a universal solvent.
Distribution of Waters on Earth The waters on Earth are divided into two groups:
1. surface water 2. groundwater.
Distribution of Waters on Earth 
Surface water -may be either marine water or fresh water.
Marine water -has higher salt content and is found in larger bodies of water such as
oceans, seas, bays.
Freshwater -are those in lakes, rivers, springs and falls. Has a salt lower content. It
is the best source of drinking water for all organisms. 
Ground water -is the water found beneath Earth’s surface where there are spaces in the
soil or fractures in rocks.

*Biosphere
-is the set of all life forms on Earth.
-It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral
reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.
-For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic
organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen
is released as a byproduct.
-The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important part of the carbon cycle.

Scientists with Significant Contribution to Our Knowledge of Earth

James Hutton (1726-1797) -is recognized as the founder of modern geology. He was a
Scottish naturalist and farmer.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) -was an English naturalist known for the theory of evolution.
Alexander Oparin (1894-1980) -was a Soviet biochemist who proposed the primordial soup
theory in 1924 to explain the origin of life on Earth .
Stanley Miller (1930-2007) -was a Jewish- American chemist who conducted an experiment
in 1952 to test the hypothesis of Oparin’s primordial theory.
2
GEOLOGIST PROCESS ON EARTH
•The term "geological processes" describes the natural forces that shape the physical
makeup of a planet.
•Plate tectonics, erosion, chemical weathering and sedimentation are all examples of
forces that significantly affect the Earth’s surface and account for its major
features.
•These processes are closely studied by geologists and earth scientists to improve
their understanding of the planet’s history; to help locate useful resources, and to
aid the prediction of potentially disastrous events, such as earthquakes, tsunamis and
volcanic eruptions.
* Geologic processes are broken down into two categories:
1. Exogenous (external)
2. Endogenous (internal)
EXOGENOUS PROCESSES
- This process occur on or near the surface of the Earth.
- They are usually influenced or driven by gravity, water, wind, and organisms.
- These could be destructive occurrences that leave significant changes on the
landscape and even in the ecosystem of an area. In extreme cases, these process can
wipe out majority of the organisms inhabiting that area.
1. Weathering * Physical Weathering * Chemical Weathering
2. Erosion
3. Mass Wasting
4. Sedimentation

1. Weathering
• It is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and minerals together with other materials
through contact with Earth’s subsystems.
• It happens even without movement or transportation (as opposed to erosion that
involves movement)
• The breaking down of soil and rocks happen on the spot.
a. Physical Weathering
• It is the breakdown of rocks by mechanical forces concentrated along rock fractures.
• This can occur due to changes, whether sudden or not, in temperature, pressure, etc.
Example: * Soil cracks because of extreme heat and drought. In some cases water, wind
or ice may abrade or scrape rocks or soil.
b. Chemical Weathering
• The process by which rocks breakdown by chemical reaction.
• In this process, new or secondary minerals develop and sometime replace the original
properties of the minerals in the original rocks or soil.
•Oxidation – the reaction of a substance with oxygen.
•Hydrolysis – the chemical breakdown of a substance when combined with water.
• Another contributor of chemical weathering is Acid Rain which may cause metal or
stone to corrode or deteriorate and change their properties because of the reaction to
acids by some of the minerals in the soil and rocks that make them up.
2.Erosion
• It is the process by which Earth’s surface is worn away by wind, water, or ice.
• The process of erosion moves rock debris or soil from one place to another.
• Erosion takes place when there is rainfall, surface runoff, flowing rivers, sea water
intrusion, flooding, freezing and thawing, hurricanes, winds, etc.
• These are forces of nature, whether violent or passive, capable of exfoliating and
scraping Earth’s surface and exposing the layers underlying it.
• Movement of land animals during migration or stampede can also cause erosion.
• Human activities such as deforestation , overgrazing, and mining also cause erosion.
• These massive activities can cause deterioration and destruction of infrastructure.
3.Mass Wasting
• This refers to movement of large masses of materials down a slope or steep-sided hill
or mountain due to the pull of gravity.
• It is very destructive in areas with increased water flow, steep slopes, scarce or no
vegetation, or vibrating or moving grounds.
a. Debris flow happens when a large amount of sediments , usually rocks of various
sizes, falls down the slope. Unlike a landslide, debris flow does not need water to
flow down.
b. Mudflow happens when combined soil and water flow down a slope. This usually
happens near rivers or streams where soil or sand is always moist or has been soaked
in water for a long time. The weight of the mudflow indicates the severity of risk
when it follows down the community.
c. Slump is a slow movement of the soil along a curve surface. In time, the area would
look curved because of the depression formed by the sinking land.
4. Sedimentation
• It is the accumulation of materials such as soil, rock fragments, and soil particles
settling on the ground.
This usually occurs in streams and sea erosion. Over time, the sediment load becomes
thick and forms a new layer of ground.
• In some small island waters, this sediment layer will eventually dry up the water and
become the part of the soil.
• In oceans, the sediment layer can form the ocean basin.
Because geologic process is constant, ocean basins change in size and depth. The change
depends on the rate of erosion in their surrounding continental masses or by ocean
ridges.
Endogenous Processes
• The endogenous processes on Earth take place within or in the interior of the Earth.
• The driving force is the thermal energy of the mantle.
• Most of the thermal energy originates from the decay and disintegration of
radioactive elements in the Earth’s core.
• The endogenous processes on Earth are responsible for the earthquakes, development of
continents, mountain building, volcanic activities and other movements related to
Earth’s crust.
1. Magmatism
• Magma is the original material that make up igneous rocks.
• Originally found beneath the surface of Earth, magma is very hot and is constantly
moved by the internal heat that reaches the mantle of Earth through convective flow.
• Magmatism happens when magma is generated and develops into igneous (magmatic) rocks.
• The process can take place either under the surface or on the surface of Earth.
2. Volcanism (or Plutonism)
• It is the process that usually happens after magma is formed.
• Magma tries to escape from the source through openings such as volcanoes or existing
cracks on the ground.
• Magma comes out with extreme heat and pressure and may cause destructive explosions.
• As soon as the magma reaches the surface of Earth, it is now called lava.
3. Metamorphism
• It is the process of changing the materials that make up a rock.
• The chemical components and geologic characteristics of the rock change due to heat
and pressure that are increasing or decreasing.
• The mineral in the rock may change even if the rock does not melt.
• It should be noted that rocks changing due to weathering and sedimentation are not
considered to have undergone metamorphism.
Types of Stress That Influence Rock Behavior
• The geologic processes that occur on Earth cause stress on rocks.
• Geological stress is the force (from the pushing and pulling of plates) that acts on
the rocks thereby creating different behavior or characteristics.
1. Compressional
• In compressional stress, rocks push or squeeze against one another.
• The stress produced is directed toward the center.
• Hence, when these rocks meet, the orientation could either be horizontal or vertical.
• Horizontally, the crust may thicken or shorten.
• Vertically, the crust can thin out or break off.
• Compressional stress is usually what takes place in folding, which results in
mountain building.
2. Tensional
• In tensional stress, rocks and pulled apart.
• Rocks may separate in in opposite directions or move farther away from one another.
• It is speculated that this type of stress is what separated all the continents in the
world during the breaking away of the supergiant continent known as Pangaea.
3. Shear
• Some of the portions of a plate at the edges may break away in different directions,
eventually making the plate smaller in size.
• Depending on the conditions of the environment, shear stress usually happens at
different rates at the boundaries of the plate.
• The friction caused by this stress can cause earthquake.
4.Confining
• In confining stress, the crust becomes compact, making it look smaller.
• This is different from shearing as none of the crust’s edges break away.
• However, if breaking away happens, it would come from the inside. This may retain the
shape of the crust but not its weight.
• In short, nothing may seem to have changed in the appearance of the crust because
changes have occurred inside.
• Confining stress can cause sinkholes where the inside portion of the ground has
already disintegrated without being apparent.
3
GEOLOGICAL HAZARD
VOCABULARY
• Natural hazards - events that occur as part of the natural cycles of Earth and may
cause potential damage to a community.
• An event that causes widespread losses ( human, economic, and environmental) and
disrupts the normal functioning of a community is called disaster.
HAZARDS CAUSED BY GEOLOGIC PROCESSES
• Earthquake
•Volcanic eruptions
•Landslides
COMMON GEOLOGIC HAZARDS
1. EARTHQUAKES
•Also known as a quake, tremor or temblor
• is the perceptible shaking of the surface of the Earth, which can be violent enough
to destroy major buildings and kill thousands of people.
•The plate tectonics theory explains that interaction of plates occurs on their edges
or boundaries.
• The Philippines is geographically located near the boundaries of active tectonic
plates. It is specifically near the edge of the Philippine plate that is constantly
pushed by an active Pacific plate.
• Earthquaketrack.com is a Web site that provides real-time information on earthquakes
whose data are provided by the United States Geological Survey (USGS).
•According to this site, the Philippines experiences 200 to 250 earthquakes of varying
magnitude each year. Most of the earthquakes have less than 2.0 magnitude which are not
strong enough to cause damage.
•MAGNITUDE -measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake.
•INTENSITY - measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain
location.
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH EARTHQUAKES
A. Ground Shaking -It is the vibration of the ground due to plate movement or seismic
waves during an earthquake.
-Living things may be disturbed by this movement.
- Buildings and other infrastructure can be damaged by the effect of ground shaking.
- These structures can also be damaged when the ground beneath them sinks (subsidence)
after shaking.
B. Surface faulting -The tearing of the ground when the movement of a fault deep within
Earth breaks through to ground surface.
-Buildings, roads, railroads, tunnels, and pipelines are susceptible to surface
faulting damage.
-Animal habitats may also be destroyed, or worse, lost due to the breaking of the
ground.
C. TSUNAMIS - Very high, large waves or seismic sea waves caused by the sudden movement
of the ocean floor due to Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, man-made explosions, and on
some occasions, landslides.
• According to the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) , the
top 10 provinces that are at risk to earthquakes are the following
1. Surigao del Sur 2. La Union 3. Benguet 4. Pangasinan 5. Pampanga 6. Tarlac 7. Ifugao
8. Davao Oriental 9. Nueva Vizcaya 10. Nueva Ecija
2. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
• The location of the Philippines in the Pacific Ring of Fire is near the subduction
zone of the Pacific Plate.
• Subduction zone is the sinking region of a convergent plate boundary.
• Because of the activities of these plates, the Philippines is prone to volcanic
eruptions.
• According to PHIVOLCS, there are more than 20 historically active volcanoes in the
country that have manifested a volcanic activity in the last 600 years.
LIST OF ACTIVE VOLCANO IN THE PHILIPPINES
• Mayon in Albay • Taal in Batangas • Kanlaon in Negros Island • Bulusan in Sorsogon •
Smith in Calayan • Hibok-Hibok in Camiguin • Pinatubo in Zambales • Musuan in Bukidnon
Other related hazards in volcanic eruptions
1. Lahar flow 2. Ash fall. 3. Pyroclastic flow 4. Ballistic projectiles 5. Emission of
volcanic gases 6. Lava flow
• These hazards prompt the evacuation of affected communities because of the
significant changes in the physical and biological profile of the environment.
• Geohazard maps plotted by PHIVOLCS was used to identify the location of volcanoes and
the possible risks associated with the activities of these volcanoes
2. LANDSLIDES
•Occur in sloping terrain.
•Usually, if the soil is not compact and devoid of vegetation, gravity can drive soil
and rocks to slide.
•Natural factors that can induce a landslide are wind and water.
•It can also be triggered by rainfall or earthquake.
2 TYPES OF LANDSLIDE
a. Rainfall-induced landslide
•In sloping areas, the gravitational descent of loosened soil makes it possible for
landslide to occur.
•This is common in places with tropical climates after very intense and long rains
during the wet season.
•A steep slope with structures has a high vulnerability to landslides. It increases the
chances of structures to slide by gravitational descent
b. Earthquake-induced landslides
•This type of landslide happens during or after an earthquake when a piece of weakened
landslides off primarily due to gravity.
•The development of frail rock or soil foundation may be due to the natural make-up of
the soil consisting of a softer layer beneath solid bedrock; man-made activities that
induce erosion.
•Landslides bring about long-term effects not only on communities but also on the
environment.
•This hazards can lead to a number of fatalities especially if no disaster reduction
plans are in place.
NATURAL HAZARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES • Magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Northern and Central
Luzon (July 16, 1990) • Magnitude 7.2 earthquake in Bohol (October 15, 2013 • Magnitude
6.9 earthquake in Central Visayas (February 6, 2012) • Magnitude 7.6 earthquake near
Eastern Samar (August 31, 2012) • Magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Central and Southern
Mindanao (March 5, 2002
4
NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION, AND ADAPTATION
Hazards Caused by Hydrometeorological Phenomena
The geographical location of the Philippines does not only make it prone to geological
hazards but also to extreme weather.
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) – is an area that encircles Earth near the
equator where trade winds meet.
• The convergence of trade winds results in rising of hot air which intensifies the
movement of winds in this area. It also enhances the passing of a typhoon, producing
stronger and more devastating winds.
• PAGASA is the government agency that provides information on meteorological,
astronomical, and climatological activities in the Philippine territory.
Common Hydrometeorological Phenomena
Tropical Cyclones
-(also known as typhoons for those occurring in the Northwest Pacific region, and
hurricanes for those developing in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific regions) are
storm systems characterized by rapidly spiraling storms, low-pressure,center, and
intensely strong winds
Typically, they begin over warm tropical waters They derive their energy from the
evaporation of water from the warm ocean surface which ultimately recondenses into
clouds and rain, while the moist air rises and cools in the atmosphere.
The rotating spiraling winds are a result of the conservation of angular momentum which
is manifested in Earth's rotation on its axis. Air flows inward towards the axis of
rotation. The direction of the cyclone depends on its location on Earth. The Northern
Hemisphere, where the Philippines is located, would have counterclockwise direction of
cyclones.
On the average, the Philippines experiences almost 20 typhoons annually. PAGASA issues
public storm warning signals based on speed. intensity, size of circulation, and
direction of winds. Some of the hazards associated with typhoons are:
Strong winds
-The strength of winds can destroy lightweight structures and uproot plants and trees.
Super typhoons can even wipe out an entire community, leaving families homeless.
Heavy rainfall leading to flooding
-Some typhoons are associated with continuous and heavy rains. The identified primary
causes of immediate flooding stem from either clogged drainage or low elevation of
affected areas. Flooding can even worsen in places with high density of population and
narrow spaces. During rainy seasons. rainwater may not subside for days if the drainage
systems are clogged, or there are obstructions in the pathways of water. This can lead
to more problems such as
-Disruption of commercial and industrial operations, leading to loss of income;
-Displacement of affected families;
-Damaged properties resulting from corrosion and water intrusion; and
-Health diseased including leptospirosis, and pathological diseases caused by
waterborne agents.
Monsoons
Monsoons are seasonal winds. The Philippines experiences two monsoons every year, the
amihan and the habagat. Changes in season are indicated by reversing winds. Amihan
blows to the east while habagat blows to the west.
Amihan
The amihan or the northeast monsoon is characterized by cold, gusty wind with little or
no precipitation. It begins in early September up to May or June. The cool wind is from
northern China and Siberia gradually moving southward as it reaches the Philippines.
Hazards associated with amihan are thunderstorms, lightning, heavy rainfall, and
flooding, all of which may lead to property damage and health risks.
Habagat
The habagat or the southwest monsoon is characterized by hot and humid atmosphere with
frequent heavy rainfall.
It begins in early June and ends in August or September. In some cases, habagat may
bring about problems and hazards during extreme heat and drought. Here, water shortage
challenges all sectors of the society, especially the agricultural industries. Lack of
water for irrigation can decrease crop yield.
Tornadoes
A tornado or locally known as ipo-ipo is a rapidly swirling condensation funnel whose
narrow end comes in contact with the ground. Usually, the violent swirling air column
carries debris and other oblects that it can pick up from the ground.
Tornadoes occur anywhere in the Philippines at an average of 12 to 24 times in a year
(PAGASA, 2011).
Among the immediate hazards of tornadoes are:
Strong whilring winds
As the winds move toward the center (centripetal force), the impact breaks objects
along its path. Depending on strength, the whirling wind can also pick up objects as
heavy as vehicles. From midair going down, these objects can smash other oblects or hit
people as they fall to the ground
Flying debris and dust
Fragments of destroyed objects are hurled away, and soil particles scatter around the
area, potentially hitting or slamming onto a structure or person.
Fire
Tornadoes can destroy power lines and cause fire.
At night. sparks seen fro tornado site can mean snapping power lines that have been
damaged by the passing tornado.
Hydrometeorological Hazard-prone
Areas in the Philippines
The map shown here is a composite risk map that considers projected rainfall change,
risk to projected temperature increase, risk to typhoons, and risk to El Nino-induced
drought The combination of all these meteorological hazards has recently caused
disasters to the islands of Luzon and Visayas, where most of the risks are concentrated.

The pattern of typhoon tracks has been frequenting the eastern portion of the country.
such that more disaster preparedness efforts are now centered on Eastern Visayas. These
weather disturbances increase the risks in areas whose topographical features are prone
to landslide and flooding. Sadly, most of the rural areas in the Visayas have been
exploited of their natural resources, the effects of which are characterized by
degradation and instability of land. With this profile, the susceptibility of these
areas to hydrometeorological hazards is high.
Prevention and Management of Hydrometeorological Hazards
-Hydrometeorological hazards can be predicted more precisely as they follow a cyclic
pattern because they are influenced by seasons. They occur at a particular period or
season, as compared with other natural hazards that may occur unpredictably.

PAGASA has installed various weather stations all over the country to accurately detect,
observe, measure, and forecast any of possible meteorological hazards. It is then
important to be aware and be prepared at the onset of the season for specific hazards
so that disasters may be minimized if not totally prevented.

As soon as PAGASA issues a warning for any hydrometeorological hazard:

1. Check your emergency kit.
2. Make plans for evacuation to higher ground especially if you live in a coastal area.
3. Participate in cleanup activities to clear pathways of rainwaters to avoid flooding.
4. Cut dead or rotting trees and trim tree branches that could otherwise fall off from
the force of winds and cause injury or damage.
5. Reinforce supports or foundations in your house to withstand strong winds or water.
6. Transfer valuables and other furniture to higher ground especially if your place is
flood-prone.
7. Secure objects found outside that could be blown away or cause damage to property or
bring harm to people.
8. Unplug any electronic equipment
During any hydrometeorological hazard:
1. Stay indoors. Do not go to isolated or open areas.
2. Stay updated with PAGASA's official announcements by listening to the news.
3. If the electricity is out, use battery-operated radios.
4. Stay away from corded devices such as telephones, air conditioners, computers, and
lightning fixtures. Power surges from lightning can cause serious damage.
5. Do not go near windows, doors, and porches.