EARTH SCIENCE The Lithosphere--contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the
planet's crust (surface), the semi-solid land underneath the
WHAT MAKES EARTH SUITABLE FOR LIFE?
The Moon
The Earth has a slight tilt and teeters which can cause drastic
shifts in climate over the course of thousands of years. But
because of the moon's stabilizing effect on our orbit, our climate
is a lot steadier. And also, the moon causes the tides, and some
experts assume life began in tidal pools.
Stable rotation
The regularity and frequency of day and night on this planet go
far to prevent extreme temperatures and encourage life.
A magnetic field
Our planet is blessed with a strong, stable magnetic field, which
staves off the cosmic rays and solar flares that could “burn” the
planet every now and then.
Dynamic geology
The cloud of gas and dust that eventually coalesced into the
Earth contained enough radioactive elements to keep the core
of the planet churning merrily for billions of years. Without that
motion, there wouldn't be a magnetic field at all.
Atmosphere
The importance of the ozone layer should also be considered.
Back in the very early days of life, plant-like organisms
unknowingly made way for animal life by filling the
atmosphere with oxygen. That high-altitude layer of gas
shielded early animals from lethal radiation.
Isolation
Venus and Mars are close to the Earth, but our solar system as
a whole is in the middle of nowhere. Because we're far from the
major spiral arms of the Milky Way, we're in a lot less danger
of encountering some greater star's gravitational pull (among
other hazards).
Long-lived sun
Our sun is a yellow dwarf, a relatively rare type of star that's
both small and stable. It also has a long life, and probably won't
start to fizzle out for another five billion years or so. Larger stars
generally burn hotter and die sooner, while smaller stars have a
tendency to spit out enormous plumes of radiation.
Plenty of time
The sun has about five billion years left, and the Earth itself is
around four and a half billion years old. But life only arrived in
that last half-billion. We're here because our planet was sturdy
enough to last until the first signs of life appeared.
Gas-giant neighbors
The sun and moon are great, but there's another large planet to
help make Earth habitable: Jupiter. In general, gas giants tend
to clump up near their home stars. And because they're toward
the outside of our solar system, their intense gravity
conveniently catches wayward asteroids and comets, making
events like the one that killed the dinosaurs a rarity.
Subsystems of Earth
Lithosphere
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crust, and the liquid land near the center of the planet. The
surface of the lithosphere is very uneven.
The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form
layers that are physically and chemically different. If someone
were to cut through Earth to its center, these layers would be
revealed like the layers of an onion. The outermost layer of the
lithosphere consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen, and
silicon. Beneath that layer lies a very thin, solid crust of oxygen
and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of oxygen,
silicon, iron, and magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core
of nickel and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid inner core of
nickel and iron.
Hydrosphere
The Hydrosphere -- contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous
water of the planet. It ranges from 10 to 20 kilometers in
thickness. The hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface
downward several kilometers into the lithosphere and upward
about 12 kilometers into the atmosphere. A small portion of the
water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water flows
as precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's surface,
as rivers and streams along Earth's surface, and as groundwater
beneath Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh water, however,
is frozen.
Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water
collects indeep valleys along Earth's surface. These large
collections of salty water are referred to as oceans. The image
above depicts the different temperatures one would find on
oceans' surfaces. Water near the poles is very cold while water
near the equator is very warm. The differences in temperature
cause water to change physical states. Extremely low
temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to freeze
into a solid such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an iceberg.
Extremely high temperatures like those found at the equator
cause water to evaporate into a gas.
Biosphere
The Biosphere --contains all the planet's living things. This
sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and animals
of Earth. 

Within the biosphere, living things form ecological
communities based on the physical surroundings of an area.
These communities are referred to as biomes. Deserts,
grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many types
of biomes that exist within the biosphere.
Atmosphere
The Atmosphere--contains all the air in Earth's system. It
extends from less than 1 m below the planet's surface to more
than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The upper portion of
the atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the
sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also absorbs and emits heat. When
air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes,
weather occur. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or
cooled, it moves around the planet. The result can be as simple
as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.
Interaction Between the Four Spheres
Changes that take place within an ecosystem are referred to as
events. Although the four systems have their individual
identities, there is important interaction between them.
Environmental scientists study the effects of events in one
sphere on the other spheres. There are ten possible types of
interactions that could occur within the earth system. Four of
these interactions are between the event and each of the 3 earth's
spheres. The double-headed arrows indicate that the cause and
effect relationships of these interactions go in both directions.
The event “hydrosphere" refers to the effects of the event on the
hydrosphere, as well as the effects of the hydrosphere on the
event. For example, a volcanic eruption in the geosphere may
cause profound direct and indirect effects on the hydrosphere,
atmosphere and biosphere.
Source: https://www.space.com/5595-earth-special-compared-
planets.html
ELEMENTS
All materials on Earth are made up of elements. An element is
a substance that cannot be changed by ordinary means into any
other substance. The smallest particle of an element that has all
the properties of that element is called an atom. Ninety-two
elements occur naturally on or in the Earth (although others
elements have been created in the laboratory). Of the natural
elements, a few very common ones compose most of Earth’s
air, water and solid material.
The three major classification of elements are metals, non-
metals and metalloids. Metals have a shiny luster, conduct both
heat and electricity readily and they reflect light. Most metals
are malleable and ductile.
Non-metals are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity.
They are brittle rather than malleable and ductile. A few
elements have some of the properties of both the metals and
non-metals. Such elements are called metalloids.
The nucleus is the center of the atom and has a positive electric
charge. It is composed of protons, which are electrically
positive and neutrons, which have no electric charge.
Surrounding the nucleus is a group of electrons, having a
negative charge.
Compounds
Elements exist under two conditions. They may be free or they
may be united chemically in chemical compounds.
In a mixture, substances are physically mingled. A solution is
a particular type of mixture. In solutions of some chemical
compounds, the particles, called molecules, are made up of two
or more atoms of elements. These atoms are chemically
combined in a fixed proportion by weight. Solutions of other
compounds may consist of electrically charged particles,
smaller than molecules, called ions.
Oxides, acids, bases and salts are four classes of compounds
which are often met in the study of rocks and minerals.
Oxides are compounds of elements that are combined with
oxygen alone. Acids are compounds which always contain
hydrogen; their water solutions turn blue litmus paper to red.
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Bases are compounds which always contain a combination of 1
atom of oxygen and 1 atom of hydrogen, called the hydroxide
(OH) group. Salts are compounds of a metal and a non-metal or
a non-metallic group.
Properties of Minerals
Color
Most obvious property. The color of the freshly broken surface
of some minerals is a reliable clue to their identification. The
color of the surface tarnish of those materials that have a
metallic luster should also be taken into account.
Streak
Color of a thin layer of the finely powdered mineral. A streak
is usually obtained by rubbing the mineral against a streak plate
of unglazed porcelain, such as the back of a tile. The streak of
a non-metallic mineral is either colorless or very light while
metallic minerals have a dark streak.
Luster
Ability of a mineral to reflect, refract (bend) or absorb light
falling into its surface. Various terms are used to describe the
general types of luster. These include dull, pearly, resinous,
silky, earthy, metallic, glassy or vitreous and brilliant or
adamantine.
Crystal form
Significant because it provides a clue to the internal structure of
the mineral. Most minerals are crystalline. Their atoms, ions or
molecules are arranged in definite patterns. Minerals crystallize
in six basic shapes: isometric or cubic, orthorhombic,
tetragonal, monoclinic, hexagonal and triclinic.
Cleavage and fracture
Also indicate the structure of the mineral. Minerals are said to
have poor, fair, good, perfect or eminent cleavage. Fracture
reveal the true color of the mineral. Some types of fracture are
conchoidal, fibrous or splintery, irregular and earthy.
Hardness
Its resistance to abrasion (scratching). Certain minerals are
used as standards of comparison for all others. The scale of
hardness, called Mohs’ scale, consists of ten minerals. These
range from talc, one of the softest minerals to diamond, the
hardest of all minerals.
Specific gravity
The relative weights of various minerals can be judged by
weighing or handling pieces of roughly the same size (hefting).
A more precise method is to measure its specific gravity. This
is expressed as a number that tells how many times heavier a
given volume of the substance is than an equal volume of water.
Special properties
Magnetism
Electrical properties
Fluorescence
Radioactivity
Temperature of fusion
Optical properties
MINERAL
A mineral is a natural substance with distinctive chemical and
physical properties, composition, and atomic structure. The
definition of an economic mineral is broader, and includes
minerals, metals, rocks and hydrocarbons (solid and liquid) that
are extracted from the earth by mining, quarrying and pumping.
Economic minerals are used in a wide range of applications
related to construction, manufacturing, agriculture and energy
supply.
Minerals are basic and essential raw materials in our daily lives,
and are vital for economic, social and technological
development.
Mineral Uses
COPPER Copper is used for electrical conductors,
motors, appliances, piping and in metal
alloys.
GOLD Gold has many high tech applications
including computers and many scientific
instruments, is used in electrical
conductors, is used in the face shields of
fire fighters to reflect the heat of a fire. is
used in building windows for reflecting the
heat from the sun, medical and dental
equipment, and jewelry.
ZINC ZnO is used to prevent Sunburn, zinc is
used for protective coatings for steel,
casting alloys and extensively in
medicines.
NICKEL Nickel is primarily used to manufacture
stainless steel.
SILVER Silver is used in electrical conductors,
photography, chemical manufacturing,
dental and medical uses.
ALUMINUM Aluminum is used in electrical conductors,
ships, airplanes, doors, windows, roofing,
insulation, packaging, food processing,
domestic utensils.
IRON Iron is used in steel manufacturing,
magnets, medicines, biomedical research,
paints, printing inks, plastics, cosmetics,
dyes. Iron is used in volume, about 20 times
more than any other metal in our society.
BORAX Borax is used to make fiberglass, high
temperature glass, cleaning agents,
ceramics, wood preservatives, corrosion
inhibitors and fertilizers.
TITANIUM Titanium is used in paint manufacture as
pigments, and in plastic manufacture, as
well as many high strength, low weight
metal alloys.
TALC Talc is used in paper manufacture, in paint
manufacture and in plastics and the
cosmetic industry.
CLAY Used to make cement and concrete, which
is used to build roads, buildings, housing
foundations and even driveways.
COAL Used in steel making and to provide
electricity. For decades it was the lowest
cost electricity in the world (except for
hydro generated). However, now natural
gas, solar and wind are less expensive ways
to generate electric power. Slag (the residue
left when coal is burned) from coal power
plants is used for paving additives, for
abrasives in sandblasting and to
manufacture roofing materials.
PHOSPHATE Phosphate is used to produce phosphoric
acid for fertilizers, feed additives for
livestock, chemicals, and used in consumer
home products
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POTASH Carbonate of potassium, is used in
fertilizers, medicines and the chemical
industry.
RARE Planthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium,
EARTH Neodymium, Europium, etc., are used in
ELEMENTS petroleum refining, computers, televisions,
magnetic industry, metallurgical
applications, ceramics and lighting.
LITHIUM Lithium ore is currently primarily used to
produce lithium carbonate which is utilized
to manufacture auto batteries.
Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/rocks-and-
minerals.htm
MINING
Surface mining is a form of mining in which the soil and the
rock covering the mineral deposits are removed. It is the other
way of underground mining, in which the overlying rock is left
behind, and the required mineral deposits are removed through
shafts or tunnels.
Surface mining is basically employed when deposits of
commercially viable minerals or rock are found closer to the
surface; that is, where overstrain (surface material covering the
valuable deposit) is relatively very less or the material of
interest is structurally unsuitable for heavy handling or
tunneling (as would usually be the case for sand, cinder, and
gravel).
Where ever minerals occur deep below the earths crest or the
overburden is too thick or the mineral occurs as strands in hard
rock, Underground mining methods are employed to extract the
valuable mineral deposits.
Surface mines are naturally extended until either the valuable
deposit is exhausted, or the cost of de-cresting larger volumes
of overburden makes further mining an uneconomic option to
shoulder.
In most types of surface mining, heavy paraphernalia's such as
earthmovers are utilized. They 1st remove the overburden the
soil and rock above the deposit. Then followed by the huge
machines, such as dragline excavators, extract the mineral.
It is a known fact that Mother Earth contributes largely to the
wealth of the world. The mining takes place in those areas
where the growth of vegetation is very minimal or at times does
not exist due to the surface conditions. The most important
method used to extract the minerals from the earth is surface
mining. It is surprising to notice that 70 percent of the minerals
extracted from the earth are through this process. The basic
material used for construction purposes like crushed rocks, sand
and gravel is obtained through this method.
After the discovery of certain kinds of mineral deposits in a
particular area a method has to be evaluated to extract these
minerals. The selection is based on technical and environmental
aspects and surface mining is preferred to extract the minerals
from the surface area. As compared to underground mining this
method of mining removes soil and rock overlying the mineral
deposit. The equipment used for this process is always heavy
such as earth movers, dragline excavators or bucket wheel
excavators.
Types of surface mining
Strip mining:
This process involves the method of extracting the mineral by
removing soil and rock which are deposited on the surface.Coal
and Lignite are the two principle minerals that are extracted
through this method. This kind of mining can be done when the
mineral to be extracted almost near to the surface.This process
is divided into area stripping and contour stripping. This
method of striping is common on flat land to extract the mineral
over a large area.
Open-pit mining:
This type of mining involves the extraction of rock or minerals
from the earth by forming an open pit. This process differs from
the other method which requires digging into the earth. This
method of mining is carried out where useful minerals or rocks
are found near the surface. When the surface material covering
the valuable material is relatively thin this kind of mining is
more suitable.
Open cast mines are dug on benches which are usually four to
sixty meter intervals and the machinery used depends on the
size of the area. The flat part of the wall is known as the bench
whereas the inclined portion of the sections is known as batter.
To prevent the damage from rock falls the walls of the pit has
to be dug on less than vertical angle. A crude, temporary road
is usually found at the side of the pit for the movement of trucks
carrying ore or waste rocks. The waste rocks are always piled
up on the borders of the open pit. This waste dump is arranged
in rows and stepped to lower the degradation.
The next step is rehabilitation. This is the process by which the
land is returned to the original state after the process of mining
is done. Various processes are involved to bring it to the original
state. Another way is an adaptive use of mines by which the
mines are reused and they develop the closed open pit mines
into parks. The reclaimed mine sites are used for small
economic activities which may also include dumping of sludge
waste etc.
Mountaintop removal:
Another method involved in this category aims at mining the
summit or the long and narrow edge of the mountain. The main
mineral extracted by this method is coal. Coal is mined by
removing the land above the seams.
The coal cannot be mined using simple machines. Explosives
are used to mine the coal and the excess coals are dumped in
the nearby valley. This method is less expensive and requires
only a few employees. There is controversy as to whether the
coal mining is safe as it is being removed from the mountain
top. But the coal industry asserts that it is safer than the
underground mining. The environmental studies warn that this
process can damage the environment and also the health of
human beings. Another positive impact of Mountain mining is
that the reclaimed area is suitable for many purposes and the
flat terrain can support rapid development for human
population. However, the blasting of mountain top releases
large amount of dust and tiny materials into the air leading to
the pollution that could be a health hazard.
Dredging:
This is a method by which underwater minerals are extracted.
It is usually used to make waterways for boats and navigation
canals for the passage of container ships to save time. The
mineral can be extracted from under water in cheap and
efficient way. Oil refining is done mainly by this method.
FOSSIL FUELS
Man’s fuel needs, since the olden times, have been met through
the use of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels, as its name suggests, were
formed from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and
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animals. They are responsible for much of the world’s electric
power and total energy demands. Since 1900, the world’s
consumption of fossil fuels has nearly doubled every 20 years.
Fossil fuels comprise mainly of coal, oil and gas. These three
were formed millions of years ago beneath the Earth’s surface
from the decomposed bodies of dead plants and animals. They
are foreseen to be in short supply in the future as man’s fuel
needs continue to grow at a fast rate.
Crude oil is also referred to as petroleum. Compared to coal,
this is easier to extract from the ground through the use of pipes
thereby making it less costly to transport from one place to
another.
Natural gas has other uses apart from being burned in power
plants to generate electricity. Many people also use it in their
home heating systems to provide warm air during the cold
winter season.
Advantages of Fossil Fuels
• A major advantage of fossil fuels is their capacity to generate
huge amounts of electricity in just a single location.
• Fossil fuels are very easy to find.
• When coal is used in power plants, they are very cost effective.
Coal is also in abundant supply.
• Transporting oil and gas to the power stations can be made
through the use of pipes making it an easy task.
• Power plants that utilize gas are very efficient.
• Power stations that make use of fossil fuel can be constructed
in almost any location. This is possible as long as large
quantities of fuel can be easily brought to the power plants.
Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels
• Pollution is a major disadvantage of fossil fuels. This is
because they give off carbon dioxide when burned thereby
causing a greenhouse effect. This is also the main contributory
factor to the global warming experienced by the earth today.
• Coal also produces carbon dioxide when burned compared to
burning oil or gas. Additionally, it gives off sulphur dioxide, a
kind of gas that creates acid rain.
• Environmentally, the mining of coal results in the destruction
of wide areas of land. Mining this fossil fuel is also difficult and
may endanger the lives of miners. Coal mining is considered
one of the most dangerous jobs in the world.
• Power stations that utilize coal need large amounts of fuel. In
other words, they not only need truckloads but trainloads of coal
on a regular basis to continue operating and generating
electricity. This only means that coal-fired power plants should
have reserves of coal in a large area near the plant?s location.
• Use of natural gas can cause unpleasant odors and some
problems especially with transportation.
• Use of crude oil causes pollution and poses environmental
hazards such as oil spills when oil tankers, for instance,
experience leaks or drown deep under the sea. Crude oil
contains toxic chemicals which cause air pollutants when
combusted.
Petroleum
Petroleum, or crude oil, is the most extensively used fossil fuel.
Due to its value to mankind, it is also known as "black gold."
The word petroleum comes from the Latin words "petro"
(meaning rock) and "leum" (meaning oil).
Petroleum mainly is used to fuel jets and automobiles. It also is
used to generate electricity, and its derivatives are utilized in
the medicine and plastic industries. As demand for oil is still
increasing, the average worldwide rate of oil field depletion is
believed to be around 2.5 percent per year. The widespread use
of petroleum also has contributed to air and water pollution.
Coal
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel resource. It provides about
one-quarter of the total energy the world uses, and 40 percent
of the electricity generated worldwide is powered by coal. The
steel industry also is greatly dependent upon this fossil fuel.
Like other depleting sources of global energy, coal reserves are
also on a steep decline. Moreover, coal is a greenhouse gas
nightmare.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is comprised mostly of methane, although it also
contains ethane, propane and butane. It is a convenient and
efficient energy source. The major consumers of natural gas are
the residential, commercial and industrial sectors. It is also used
to generate electricity. Unlike other fossil fuels, natural gas is
cleaner and causes less pollution. Like other fossil fuels, this
resource is depleting rapidly.
Orimulsion
Orimulsion became the “fourth fossil fuel” in the mid-1980s. It
is derived from the bitumen that occurs naturally in large
reserves in the Orinoco oil belt in Venezuela. It is estimated that
there are more than 1.2 trillion barrels of bitumen available in
reserves, an amount greater than 50 percent of the world's
estimated oil reserves.
Orimulsion has achieved growing recognition as an
economically viable fuel for power generation. In countries
such as Canada, Denmark, Japan, Italy, Lithuania and China, it
is used as a commercial boiler fuel in power plants. Orimulsion
is the cost-effective choice when compared to other fossil fuels
used to generate electricity.
Future of Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy. As we are
excessively dependent on these, alternative forms of energy
need to be developed in order to deal with the imminent energy
scarcity. These alternate sources of energy also need to be more
eco-friendly.
Source:
https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/
Teacher_PSA_sphere_interactions.pdf
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal energy comes from the heat within the earth. The
word "geothermal" comes from the Greek words geo, meaning
earth," and therme, meaning "heat." People around the world
use geothermal energy to produce electricity, to heat buildings
and greenhouses, and for other purposes.
The earth's core lies almost 4,000 miles beneath the earth's
surface. The double-layered core is made up of very hot molten
iron surrounding a solid iron center. Estimates of the
temperature of the core range from 5,000 to 11,000 degrees
Fahrenheit (F). Heat is continuously produced within the earth
by the slow decay of radioactive particles that is natural in all
rocks.
Surrounding the earth's core is the mantle, thought to be partly
rock and partly magma. The mantle is about 1,800 miles thick.
The outermost layer of the earth, the insulating crust, is not one
continuous sheet of rock, like the shell of an egg, but is broken
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into pieces called plates. These slabs of continents and ocean
floor drift apart and push against each other at the rate of about
one inch per year in a process called continental drift.
Magma (molten rock) may come quite close to the surface
where the crust has been thinned, faulted, or fractured by plate
tectonics. When this near-surface heat is transferred to water, a
usable form of geother- energy is created.
Geothermal energy is called a renewable energy source because
the water is replenished by rainfall, and the heat is continuously
produced by the earth.
How geothermal energy is captured
Geothermal springs for power plants. Currently, the most
common way of capturing the energy from geothermal sources
is to tap into naturally occurring "hydrothermal convection"
systems, where cooler water seeps into Earth's crust, is heated
up, and then rises to the surface. Once this heated water is
forced to the surface, it is a relatively simple matter to capture
that steam and use it to drive electric generators. Geothermal
power plants drill their own holes into the rock to more
effectively capture the steam.
There are three basic designs for geothermal power plants, all
of which pull hot water and steam from the ground, use it, and
then return it as warm water to prolong the life of the heat
source. In the simplest design, known as dry steam, the steam
goes directly through the turbine, then into a condenser where
the steam is condensed into water. In a second approach, very
hot water is depressurized or "flashed" into steam which can
then be used to drive the turbine.
In the third approach, called a binary cycle system, the hot water
is passed through a heat exchanger, where it heats a second
liquid—such as isobutane—in a closed loop. Isobutane boils at
a lower temperature than water, so it is more easily converted
into steam to run the turbine.
The three basic designs for geothermal power plants: dry
steam, flash steam, and binary cycle. Image: U.S. Department
of Energy
The hydropower resource
On Earth, water is constantly moved around in various states, a
process known as the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates from
the oceans, forming into clouds, falling out as rain and snow,
gathering into streams and rivers, and flowing back to the sea.
All this movement provides an enormous opportunity to
harness useful energy.
In order to generate electricity from the kinetic energy in
moving water, the water has to move with sufficient speed and
volume to spin a propeller-like device called a turbine, which
in turn rotates a generator to generate electricity. Roughly
speaking, one gallon of water per second falling one hundred
feet can generate one kilowatt of electricity.
To increase the volume of moving water, impoundments or
dams are used to collect the water. An opening in the dam uses
gravity to drop water down a pipe called a penstock. The
moving water causes the turbine to spin, which causes magnets
inside a generator to rotate and create electricity.
There are a variety of types of turbines used at hydropower
facilities, and their use depends on the amount of hydraulic head
(vertical distance between the dam and the turbine) at the plant.
The most common are Kaplan, Francis, and Pelton wheel
designs. Some of these designs, called reaction and impulse
wheels, use not just the kinetic force of the moving water but
also the water pressure.
The Kaplan turbine is similar to a boat propeller, with a runner
(the turning part of a turbine) that has three to six blades, and
can provide up to 400 MW of power. The Kaplan turbine is
differentiated from other kinds of hydropower turbines because
its performance can be improved by changing the pitch of the
blades. The Francis turbine has a runner with nine or more fixed
vanes. In this turbine design, which can be up to 800 MW in
size, the runner blades direct the water so that it moves in an
axial flow. The Pelton turbine consists of a set of specially
shaped buckets that are mounted on the outside of a circular
disc, making it look similar to a water wheel. Pelton turbines
are typically used in high hydraulic head sites and can be as
large as 200 MW.
Hydropower can also be generated without a dam, through a
process known as run-of-the-river. In this case, the volume and
speed of water is not augmented by a dam. Instead, a run-of-
river project spins the turbine blades by capturing the kinetic
energy of the moving water in the river. Hydropower projects
that have dams can control when electricity is generated
because the dams can control the timing and flow of the water
reaching the turbines. Therefore these projects can choose to
generate power when it is most needed and most valuable to the
grid. Because run-of-river projects do not store water behind
dams, they have much less ability to control the amount and
timing of when electricity is generated.
Another type of hydropower technology is called pumped
storage. In a pumped storage plant, water is pumped from a
lower reservoir to a higher reservoir during off-peak times when
electricity is relatively cheap, using electricity generated from
other types of energy sources. Pumping the water uphill creates
the potential to generate hydropower later on. When the
hydropower power is needed, it is released back into the lower
reservoir through turbines. Inevitably, some power is lost, but
pumped storage systems can be up to 80 percent efficient. There
is currently more than 90 GW of pumped storage capacity
worldwide. The need to create storage resources to capture and
store for later use the generation from high penetrations of
variable renewable energy (e.g. wind and solar) could increase
interest in building new pumped storage projects.
WATER RESOURCES ON EARTH
The water distribution on earth shows that most water in the
Earth's atmosphere and crust comes from the world ocean's
saline seawater, while freshwater accounts for only 2.5% of the
total. Because the oceans that cover roughly 71% of the area of
the Earth reflect blue light, the Earth appears blue from space,
and is often referred to as the blue planet and the Pale Blue Dot.
An estimated 1.5 to 11 times the amount of water in the oceans
may be found hundreds of miles deep within the Earth's interior,
although not in liquid form.
The oceanic crust is young, thin and dense, with none of the
rocks within it dating from any older than the breakup of
Pangaea. Because water is much denser than any gas, this
means that water will flow into the "depressions" formed as a
result of the high density of oceanic crust. (On a planet like
Venus, with no water, the depressions appear to form a vast
plain above which rise plateaux). Since the low density rocks of
the continental crust contain large quantities of easily eroded
salts of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, salt has, over
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billions of years, accumulated in the oceans as a result of
evaporation returning the fresh water to land as rain and snow.
As a result, the vast bulk of the water on Earth is regarded as
saline or salt water, with an average salinity of 35‰ (or 3.5%,
roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater),
though this varies slightly according to the amount of runoff
received from surrounding land. In all, water from oceans and
marginal seas, saline groundwater and water from saline closed
lakes amount to over 97% of the water on Earth, though no
closed lake stores a globally significant amount of water. Saline
groundwater is seldom considered except when evaluating
water quality in arid regions.
The remainder of the Earth's water constitutes the planet's fresh
water resource. Typically, fresh water is defined as water with
a salinity of less than 1 percent that of the oceans - i.e. below
around 0.35‰. Water with a salinity between this level and 1‰
is typically referred to as marginal water because it is marginal
for many uses by humans and animals. The ratio of salt water
to fresh water on Earth is around 40 to 1.
The planet's fresh water is also very unevenly distributed.
Although in warm periods such as the Mesozoic and Paleogene
when there were no glaciers anywhere on the planet all fresh
water was found in rivers and streams, today most fresh water
exists in the form of ice, snow, groundwater and soil moisture,
with only 0.3% in liquid form on the surface. Of the liquid
surface fresh water, 87% is contained in lakes, 11% in swamps,
and only 2% in rivers. Small quantities of water also exist in the
atmosphere and in living beings. Of these sources, only river
water is generally valuable.
Most lakes are in very inhospitable regions such as the glacial
lakes of Canada, Lake Baikal in Russia, Lake Khövsgöl in
Mongolia, and the African Great Lakes. The North American
Great Lakes, which contain 21% of the world's fresh water by
volume, are the exception. They are located in a hospitable
region, which is heavily populated. The Great Lakes Basin is
home to 33 million people. The Canadian cities of Toronto,
Hamilton, Ontario, St. Catharines, Niagara, Oshawa, Windsor,
and Barrie, and the United States cities of Duluth, Milwaukee,
Chicago, Gary, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Rochester, are
all located on shores of the Great Lakes.
Although the total volume of groundwater is known to be much
greater than that of river runoff, a large proportion of this
groundwater is saline and should therefore be classified with
the saline water above. There is also a lot of fossil groundwater
in arid regions that has never been renewed for thousands of
years; this must not be seen as renewable water.
However, fresh groundwater is of great value, especially in arid
countries such as India. Its distribution is broadly similar to that
of surface river water, but it is easier to store in hot and dry
climates because groundwater storages are much more shielded
from evaporation than are dams. In countries such as Yemen,
groundwater from erratic rainfall during the rainy season is the
major source of irrigation water.
Because groundwater recharge is much more difficult to
accurately measure than surface runoff, groundwater is not
generally used in areas where even fairly limited levels of
surface water are available. Even today, estimates of total
groundwater recharge vary greatly for the same region
depending on what source is used, and cases where fossil
groundwater is exploited beyond the recharge rate (including
the Ogallala Aquifer) are very frequent and almost always not
seriously considered when they were first developed.
Source: https://www.wikipedia.org.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY
AND QUANTITY OF SOILS
Soil helps sustain life on Earth—including your life. You
already know that soil supports the growth of plants, which in
turn supply food for animals. Therefore, soil provides you with
nearly all the food you eat. But that’s not all. Many other items
you use, such as cotton clothing and medicines, come from
plants. Lumber in your home comes from trees. Even the
oxygen you breathe comes from plants.
Besides supporting the growth of plants, soil plays other life-
sustaining roles. Soil helps purify, or clean, water as it drains
through the ground and into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Decomposers in soil also help recycle nutrients by breaking
down the remains of plants and animals, releasing nutrients that
living plants use to grow. In addition, soil provides a home for
a variety of living things, from tiny one-celled organisms to
small mammals.
Farming
Farming is very important to society because almost all of the
world’s food is grown on farms. Over the 10,000 years humans
have been farming, people have continually improved their
farming methods. However, farming has some harmful effects
and can lead to soil loss.
Farmers often add nutrients to soil in the form of organic or
artificial fertilizers to make their crops grow better. However,
some fertilizers can make it difficult for microorganisms in the
soil to produce nutrients naturally. Fertilizers also add to water
pollution when rainwater draining from fields carries the excess
nutrients to rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Over time, many farming practices lead to the loss of soil. All
over the world, farmers clear trees and other plants and plow up
the soil to plant crops. Without its natural plant cover, the soil
is more exposed to rain and wind and is therefore more likely
to get washed or blown away. American farmers lose about five
metric tons of soil for each metric ton of grain they produce. In
many other parts of the world, the losses are even higher.
Another problem is overgrazing. Overgrazing occurs when
farm animals eat large amounts of the land cover. Overgrazing
destroys natural vegetation and causes the soil to wash or blow
away more easily. In many dry regions of the world,
overgrazing and the clearing of land for farming have led to
desertification. is the expansion of desert conditions in areas
where the natural plant cover has been destroyed.
Construction and Development
To make roads, houses, shopping malls, and other buildings,
people need to dig up the soil. Some of the soil at construction
sites washes or blows away because its protective plant cover
has been removed. The soil that is washed or blown away ends
up in nearby low-lying areas, in rivers and streams, or in
downstream lakes or reservoirs. This soil can cause problems
by making rivers and lakes muddy and harming the organisms
that live in them. The buildup of soil on riverbeds raises the
level of the rivers and may cause flooding. The soil can also fill
up lakes and reservoirs.
Mining
Some methods of mining cause soil loss. For example, the
digging of strip mines and open-pit mines involves the removal
of plants and soil from the surface of the ground.
By exposing rocks and minerals to the air and to rainwater,
these forms of mining speed up the rate of chemical weathering.
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In mining operations that expose sulfide minerals, the increased
chemical weathering causes a type of pollution known as acid
drainage. Abandoned mines can fill with rainwater. Sulfide
minerals react with the air and the water to produce sulfuric
acid. Then the acid water drains from the mines, polluting the
soil in surrounding areas.
SOIL CONSERVATION
Soil conservation is very important, because soil can be difficult
or impossible to replace once it has been lost. Soil takes a very
long time to form. A soil with well-developed horizons may
take hundreds of thousands of years to form! Most soil
conservation methods are designed to hold soil in place and
keep it fertile. Below are descriptions of a few of the many soil
conservation methods that are used by farmers around the
world.
Crop rotation is the practice of planting different crops on the
same field in different years or growing seasons. Grain crops,
such as wheat, use up a lot of the nitrogen—a necessary plant
nutrient—in the soil. The roots of bean crops, such as soybeans,
contain bacteria that restore nitrogen to the soil. By rotating
these crops, farmers can help maintain soil fertility.
Conservation tillage includes several methods of reducing the
number of times fields are tilled, or plowed, in a year. The less
soil is disturbed by plowing, the less likely it is to be washed or
blown away. In one method of conservation tillage, fields are
not plowed at all. The remains of harvested crops are simply
left on the fields to cover and protect the soil. New seeds are
planted in narrow bands of soil.
Terraces are flat, steplike areas built on a hillside to hold
rainwater and prevent it from running downhill. Crops are
planted on the flat tops of the terraces.
Contour plowing is the practice of plowing along the curves, or
contours, of a slope. Contour plowing helps channel rainwater
so that it does not run straight downhill, carrying away soil with
it.
A soil conservation method called strip-cropping is often
combined with contour plowing. Strips of grasses, shrubs, or
other plants are planted between bands of a grain crop along the
contour of a slope. These strips of plants also help slow the
runoff of water.
Windbreaks are rows of trees planted between fields to “break,”
or reduce, the force of winds that can carry off soil.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF WASTE
Types of waste
Generally, waste could be liquid or solid waste. Both of them
could be hazardous. Liquid and solid waste types can also be
grouped into organic, re-usable and recyclable waste.
Let us see some details below:
Liquid type:
Waste can come in non-solid form. Some solid waste can also
be converted to a liquid waste form for disposal. It includes
point source and non-point source discharges such as storm
water and wastewater. Examples of liquid waste include wash
water from homes, liquids used for cleaning in industries and
waste detergents.
Solid type:

Solid waste predominantly, is any garbage, refuse or rubbish
that we make in our homes and other places. These include old
car tires, old newspapers, broken furniture and even food waste.
They may include any waste that is non-liquid.
Hazardous type:
Hazardous or harmful waste are those that potentially threaten
public health or the environment. Such waste could be
inflammable (can easily catch fire), reactive (can easily
explode), corrosive (can easily eat through metal) or toxic
(poisonous to human and animals). In many countries, it is
required by law to involve the appropriate authority to supervise
the disposal of such hazardous waste. Examples include fire
extinguishers, old propane tanks, pesticides, mercury-
containing equipment (e.g, thermostats) and lamps (e.g.
fluorescent bulbs) and batteries.
Organic type:
Organic waste comes from plants or animals sources.
Commonly, they include food waste, fruit and vegetable peels,
flower trimmings and even dog poop can be classified as
organic waste. They are biodegradable (this means they are
easily broken down by other organisms over time and turned
into manure). Many people turn their organic waste into
compost and use them in their gardens.
Recyclable type:
Recycling is processing used materials (waste) into new, useful
products. This is done to reduce the use of raw materials that
would have been used. Waste that can be potentially recycled is
termed "Recyclable waste". Aluminum products (like soda,
milk and tomato cans), Plastics (grocery shopping bags, plastic
bottles), Glass products (like wine and beer bottles, broken
glass), Paper products (used envelopes, newspapers and
magazines, cardboard boxes) can be recycled and fall into this
category.
Sources of waste
Municipal sources of waste:
This includes trash or garbage from households, schools,
offices, market places, restaurants and other public places.
They include everyday items like food debris, used plastic bags,
soda cans and plastic water bottles, broken furniture, grass
clippings, product packaging, broken home appliances and
clothing.
Medical/Clinical sources of waste:
Medical/clinical waste, normally refers to waste produced from
health care facilities, such as hospitals, clinics, surgical theaters,
veterinary hospitals and labs. They tend to be classified as
hazard waste rather than general waste. Items in this group
include surgical items, pharmaceuticals, blood, body parts,
wound dressing materials, needles and syringes
Agricultural sources of waste:
Typically, this is waste generated by agricultural activities.
These include horticulture, fruit growing, seed growing,
livestock breeding, market gardens and seedling nurseries.
Waste items in this group include empty pesticide containers,
old silage wrap, out of date medicines and wormers, used tires,
surplus milk, cocoa pods and corn husks.
End-of-life Automobiles:
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When cars are all old and not working again, where do they end
up? Many people just leave them to rust in the fields, but there
is a better way to deal with them. In many cities, these vehicles
are sent to the plant, where all the removable parts are taken out
for recycling. The rest is flattened up and shredded into peices
for recycling. The last bits that cannot be used again is sent to a
landfill.
Industrial sources of waste:
Since the industrial revolution, the rise in the number of
industries manufacturing glass, leather, textile, food,
electronics, plastic and metal products has significantly
contributed to waste production. Take a look at the things in
your home, every item there was probably manufactured and
possibly, waste was produced as a result.
Construction/demolition sources of waste:
Construction waste is that resulting from the construction of
roads and building. Sometimes old buildings and structures are
pulled down (demolished) to make space for new ones. This is
particularly common in old cities that are modernizing. This is
called demolition waste.
Waste items include concrete debris, wood, earth, huge package
boxes and plastics from the building materials and the like.
Electronic sources of waste:
This is waste from electronic and electrical devices. Think of
DVD and music players, TV, Telephones, computers, vacuum
cleaners and all the other electrical stuff in your home. These
are also called e-waste, e-scrap, or waste electrical and
electronic equipment (WEEE)
Some e-waste (like TV) contains lead, mercury, cadmium, and
brominated flame retardants. These are harmful to humans and
the environment. It is therefore important that the right
authorities ensure the proper disposal of such waste.
HEALTH IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTE
Modernization and progress have had its share of disadvantages
and one of the main aspects of concern is the pollution it is
causing to the earth – be it land, air, and water. With increase in
the global population and the rising demand for food and other
essentials, there has been a rise in the amount of waste being
generated daily by each household. This waste is ultimately
thrown into municipal waste collection centres from where it is
collected by the area municipalities to be further thrown into the
landfills and dumps. However, either due to resource crunch or
inefficient infrastructure, not all of this waste gets collected and
transported to the final dumpsites. If at this stage the
management and disposal is improperly done, it can cause
serious impacts on health and problems to the surrounding
environment.
Waste that is not properly managed, especially excreta and
other liquid and solid waste from households and the
community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread
of infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts
flies, rats, and other creatures that in turn spread disease.
Normally it is the wet waste that decomposes and releases a bad
odour. This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise
in the health problems. The plague outbreak in Surat is a good
example of a city suffering due to the callous attitude of the
local body in maintaining cleanliness in the city. Plastic waste
is another cause for ill health. Thus excessive solid waste that
is generated should be controlled by taking certain preventive
measures.
The group at risk from the unscientific disposal of solid waste
include – the population in areas where there is no proper waste
disposal method, especially the pre-school children; waste
workers; and workers in facilities producing toxic and
infectious material. Other high-risk group include population
living close to a waste dump and those, whose water supply has
become contaminated either due to waste dumping or leakage
from landfill sites. Uncollected solid waste also increases risk
of injury, and infection.

In particular, organic domestic waste poses a serious threat,

since they ferment, creating conditions favourable to the
survival and growth of microbial pathogens. Direct handling of
solid waste can result in various types of infectious and chronic
diseases with the waste workers and the rag pickers being the
most vulnerable.

Exposure to hazardous waste can affect human health, children

being more vulnerable to these pollutants. In fact, direct
exposure can lead to diseases through chemical exposure as the
release of chemical waste into the environment leads to
chemical poisoning. Many studies have been carried out in
various parts of the world to establish a connection between
health and hazardous waste.

Waste from agriculture and industries can also cause serious

health risks. Other than this, co-disposal of industrial hazardous
waste with municipal waste can expose people to chemical and
radioactive hazards. Uncollected solid waste can also obstruct
storm water runoff, resulting in the forming of stagnant water
bodies that become the breeding ground of disease. Waste
dumped near a water source also causes contamination of the
water body or the ground water source.
Direct dumping of untreated waste in rivers, seas, and lakes
results in the accumulation of toxic substances in the food chain
through the plants and animals that feed on it.

Disposal of hospital and other medical waste requires special

attention since this can create major health hazards. This waste
generated from the hospitals, health care centres, medical
laboratories, and research centres such as discarded syringe
needles, bandages, swabs, plasters, and other types of infectious
waste are often disposed with the regular non-infectious waste.

Waste treatment and disposal sites can also create health

hazards for the neighbourhood. Improperly operated
incineration plants cause air pollution and improperly managed
and designed landfills attract all types of insects and rodents
that spread disease. Ideally these sites should be located at a
safe distance from all human settlement. Landfill sites should
be well lined and walled to ensure that there is no leakage into
the nearby ground water sources.

Recycling too carries health risks if proper precautions are not

taken. Workers working with waste containing chemical and
metals may experience toxic exposure. Disposal of health-care
wastes require special attention since it can create major health
hazards, such as Hepatitis B and C, through wounds caused by
discarded syringes. Rag pickers and others who are involved in
scavenging in the waste dumps for items that can be recycled,
may sustain injuries and come into direct contact with these
infectious items.

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