Lesson 1: Origin of the Universe and Solar System It extends from the surface to the center of the planet,
e surface to the center of the planet, a depth of 6,400
Cosmology is the study of the universe, including its properties,
structure, and evolution.
The universe, also called the cosmos, began 13.8 billion years ago,
when a primordial explosion called the Big Bang occurred. The first three
minutes after, great quantities of hydrogen and helium were created, spanning
apart at great speeds. About three million years later, huge clouds, stretching
500 million light years across, began to condense. After about 200 million years,
these condensations formed the first galaxies – the birthplace of the stars and of
elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The Big Bang marked the birth of
the universe, all matter and space were created instantaneously.
In 1796, Marquis de Laplace, a French Astronomer, proposed the
Nebular Hypothesis to explain the origin of the solar system. This hypothesis
states that the solar system evolved from a slowly rotating gaseous cloud. As it
cooled by radiation and contacted, it rotated faster and faster, causing the gas to
take a disk-like form. At a certain speed, the gravitational attraction could no
longer hold the outer material to the central mass, and it broke into a ring.
Materials such as iron and nickel and rock-forming elements like silicon, calcium,
and sodium formed metallic and rocky clamps that orbited the sun. Repeated
collisions caused these masses to coalesce into the four inner planets – Mercury,
Venus, Earth, and Mars. At the same time, the larger outer planets – Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune were also developing. Being farther from the sun,
thus having colder temperature, the material from which these planets formed
contained a high percentage of ice, water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and
methane. The moons around the planets were formed by the same process.
Planets are classified into two groups: the terrestrial and the jovian. The
four planets closest to the sun are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Each has a
solid mineral-containing crust and earth-like composition, which is why they are
called terrestrial. The jovian planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
The term jovian came from Jupiter, describing the other gas giants in the solar
system as Jupiter-like.
The Sun
The sun is a glowing ball of gas-like material, called plasma. It is our
principal source of heat. Without this, our life on earth would cease. The visible
surface of the sun is called the photosphere. Several thousand miles above it
extends the chromosphere or color sphere. Beyond the chromosphere, hundreds
of thousands of miles, is the corona, a crown of light seen during a solar eclipse.
The Moon
From the Earth, we always see the same side of the moon because its
rotational rate matches the rate at which it revolves around the earth.
Because the moon rotates on its axis and revolves around the earth, we
have the moon’s phases, changes in its visible shape that occur in monthly
cycles. The new moon phase occurs when the sun, moon, and earth are lined up
with the moon in the middle. During the next seven days, more and more of the
moon’s side exposed to our view is illuminated. This is first quarter. At this point,
we see half the sunlit portion of the moon. During the next week, more and more
of the sunlit portion is exposed to us. This is the waxing gibbous phase. Then, we
see a full moon, the side of the moon facing us is completely illuminated because
the earth is in the middle of sun and moon. The cycle reverses during the
following two weeks as we see less and less of the sunlit side (crescent). One
complete cycle takes about 29 days or 1 month.
A solar eclipse occurs when the moon’s shadow falls on the earth while
lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes into the shadow of the earth. All
solar eclipses involve a new moon and all lunar eclipses involve a full moon.
The Earth
To fully understand our planet, we must first learn how its individual
components (land, water, air, and life forms) are interconnected. Earth as a
system is composed of numerous interacting parts or subsystems: hydrosphere,
atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere.
a. Hydrosphere
It is the dynamic mass of water that is continuously moving, evaporating from the
oceans to the atmosphere, precipitating to the land, and returning to the ocean. It
also includes the fresh water found in streams, lakes, and glaciers, as well as
that found underground.
b. Atmosphere
This is a thin blanket of air that we breathe. It also provides us protection from
the sun’s dangerous ultraviolet radiation. This is where our weather and climate
arise.
c. Geosphere
kilometers, being the largest of the four spheres.
d. Biosphere
It includes all life on earth. The ocean life, burrowing animals, flying insects and
birds, plants and animals, as well as microorganisms, are all part of the
biosphere, all of which help maintain balance in the ecosystem through countless
ecological interactions.
Layers of the Earth
a. Crust – the thin, topmost layer of the earth.
b. Mantle – is more than 82% of earth’s volume. The top portion of the upper
mantle is part of the lithosphere and beneath is the asthenosphere which is
also the source of volcanic magma.
c. Core – is divided into two regions. The outer core is a liquid layer that
generates the earth’s magnetic field because of its movement. The inner
core is solid due to the immense pressures that exist in the center of the
planet.
Lesson 2: Materials of the Earth
Minerals
Mineralogy is the study of minerals. Minerals are the building blocks of
rocks. Mineral is defined as a naturally formed, generally inorganic, crystalline
solid composed of an ordered array of atoms and having a specific chemical
composition.
Physical Properties of Minerals
a) Luster – refers to the way light is reflected from a mineral surface
b) Hardness – refers to the minerals resistance to being scratched
c) Streak – refers to the color of the powdered mineral
d) Cleavage – is the tendency of minerals to break along planes of weak
bonding
e) Fracture – minerals that do not exhibit cleavage are said to fracture when
broken
f) Specific gravity – is a number which represents the ratio to the weight of an
equal volume of water
g) Crystal form – external features of a mineral reflect its orderly internal
arrangement of atoms
h) Solubility – the ability of a mineral to dissolve in a liquid, like salt and water.
Natural Resources
The earth’s crust and oceans are the sources of a wide variety of useful
and essential minerals. Renewable resources can be replenished. Common
examples are plants and animals for food, natural fibers for clothing, and forest
products for lumber and paper. Nonrenewable are some basic resources such as
iron, aluminum, and copper. Others are fuels like oil, natural gas, and coal.
Rich deposits of metallic minerals such as iron, nickel, copper, gold, silver,
chromium, zinc, and lead are located in the country. Gold is the precious metal
which can be found pure in nature. Gold is the metal for adornment. It exhibits a
shiny yellow color and a specific gravity of 29.3. Mercury reserves are located in
Albay and Palawan. Our biggest lead deposits are found in Ayala, Zamboanga
City. Molybdenum deposits occur in Batangas. Other metals chosen are silver
and platinum. Platinum is used as a catalyst in refining petroleum.
Minerals in the Philippines
Nonmetallic minerals include limestone, feldspar, silica, and clay.
Limestone is used to make concrete and cement. It is found in Cebu,
Negros, and Bulacan. Feldspar is used in making tiles and ceramic toilet ware,
found in Ilocos Norte and Pampanga. Silica is used for making glass, found in
Palawan and Negros Occidental. Clay is used for pottery, found in Ilocos Norte.
Red marble abounds in Romblon.
Conserving our Mineral Resources
It took thousands or even millions of years to produce these reserves.
Mineral resources are nonrenewable. It is important for us to utilize wisely and to
conserve our country’s wealth for future generations to come. We should: a)
recycle our products to reduce waste, b) recover minerals from mine tailings, c)
control corrosion, and d) use alloys whenever feasible. We can help conserve
our resources for our needs during our lifetime.
Rocks
The earth’s crust is relatively thin. In this very thin layer, are found the
materials – the minerals and the aggregates of minerals we know as rocks.
Rocks help us decipher the earth’s past and understand the processes that have
shaped our planet. Petrology is the study of rocks.
Properties of Rocks
1. Color – dark, light, reddish, gray, brown, yellow, or even black
2. Texture – fine, rough
3. Appearance – glossy, smooth
4. Most rocks are hard, others are brittle
Types of Rocks
A. Igneous rocks
These are formed by the cooling and crystallization of hot, molten rock
material called magma. Igneous means "formed by fire.” It makes up about
95% of the earth’s crust. Granite and basalt are common igneous rocks.
When molten rock reaches the surface, it is called lava. Lava is similar to
magma except that most of the gases have escaped. Common igneous
rocks are granite, rhyolite, diorite, andesite, basalt, gabbro.
B. Sedimentary rocks
These are the most common in the uppermost portion of the crust.
Sedimentary was derived from the word sedimentation which means
“settling” as in the settling of a material from a fluid. These rocks are formed
when weathered products are transported by running water and later
deposited in the ocean where it is lithified. Common sedimentary rocks are
conglomerate, breccis, sandstone, shale, calcite, halite, limestone, and
gypsum. Coal is an important example of organic sediment.
C. Metamorphic rocks
These are formed under conditions of heat and pressure similar to the
environment in which igneous rocks are formed. Metamorphic rocks change
while rock is still solid. The original rock undergoes rearrangement of
mineral grains and enlargement of crystals. As the temperature rises,
crystals become bigger and chemical reactions occur. Examples of this
type of rocks are slates, phyllites, gneiss, marble, quartzite, and serpentine.
Lesson 3: Geologic Processes
A. Exogenic Processes
Weathering
It refers to the changes occurring at or near the surface of the earth which
includes disintegration and decomposition. Disintegration is a mechanical
process that breaks large masses of rocks into small fragments. Decomposition
is a chemical process which results in the formation of new substances such as
from elements to rocks. Air, water, and substances dissolved in water react with
elements in rocks. The hardest rocks can be broken by these processes.
Types of Weathering
Mechanical Weathering or physical weathering causes rocks to break into
small pieces with each piece retaining the characteristics of the original. It is
hastened by activities of plants, burrowing animals, and by people. Plant roots
penetrate rock joints in search for minerals and as the roots grow, the wedge
comes farther apart. People blast mountainsides to construct roads and bridges,
dig for mines, denude forests, quarry, and cultivate the land.
Chemical weathering occurs when the internal structure of a mineral is
changed by the removal or addition of elements. Water is an important agent of
chemical weathering. Oxygen gas dissolved in water will oxidize iron, basalt, and
other minerals. Carbon dioxide in water (carbonic acid) can oxidize granite and
limestone. The speed at which rock weathering occurs is dependent on (a) the
type and hardness of the minerals in the rock, (b) the type of rock, and (c) the
climate. One of the most important results of weathering is the formation of soil,
which are the basis of agriculture and the ultimate source of our food. The
processes of chemical and mechanical weathering break down the rock and the
resulting products are mixed with organic materials produced by the decay of
plants and animals.
Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity
The downslope movement of rocks and soil under the direct influence of
gravity is called mass wasting. Boulders of rocks and masses of soil that fell and
accumulated at the base of Kennon road on the way to Baguio City is a good
example of this geologic process.
Erosion
Exposure of rocks and minerals by air and water results in both physical
breakdown and chemical change. Erosion then loosens the rock and mineral
debris produced by weathering and transports it to a new location, lowering the
surface of the land mass from which the material was removed – a process
called denudation. Common agents of erosion include wind, ground water,
running water, and waves.
Causes of Erosion
1) Kaingin Method – trees are cut and burned, soil loses its fertility
2) Logging – practice of illegal logging disturbs the soil
3) Infrastructures such as dams, roads, bridges, irrigations and drainage
basins, resorts, and hydroelectric plant
4) Mining – Companies loosen and dig rocks exposing them to further erosion.
5) Burning grasslands which may lead to accidental fires can destroy plants
and leave the soil bare.
Sedimentation
Sedimentation, like erosion, follow a downhill path in response to gravity.
During transportation, sediment is continuously sorted and abraded and so the
size, shapes and sorting of particles in a sedimentary deposit provide clues to
the time and distance of transport. As deposited, sediments accumulate and
begin to transform into sedimentary rocks.
B. Endogenic Processes
Volcanism
A volcano is a restricted vent in the surface of the earth through which
gases, hot rock fragments, and lava are ejected. The top of active volcanoes has
a funnel like depression called the crater. The ejected materials accumulate
around the vent and build up a cone. Types of volcanic eruptions vary from the
quiet or effusive types to violent and destructive explosive eruptions.
The activity of volcano is associated with a reservoir of molten rock. Such
molten rock within the earth is known as magma, and when it comes to the
surface, it is known as lava. The increase in temperature within the depth of the
earth is known as geothermal gradient. Water is the main agent in producing
violent eruptions. Water as steam separates from the other components of liquid
magma as it nears the surface. If the vent is blocked, steam pressures build up
until it is sufficient to produce an eruption.
A volcanic eruption happens when a part of the earth’s crust sinks into the
mantle. Due to intense heat, rocks melt and release gas causing the magma to
rise in addition to the extreme pressure building up surrounding the solid rocks.
As heat and pressure become more intense, the magma rises higher until it
reaches the main vent or the throat of the volcano and finally flowing out of the
crater.
Magmatism
As rock is heated, minerals with low melting point tend to start melting first,
those with higher melting point follow. Most often, melting is not complete. This
process, known as partial melting, also produces magma. Most magma
originates in the upper mantle. Plate motion during volcanism provides the
mechanism by which mantle rocks melt to generate magma.
Metamorphism
It comes from the Greek words “meta” meaning change and “morph”
meaning form, so it literally means to change form. It is the process by which the
composition, texture, and internal structure of rocks are altered due to pressure,
extreme heat, and even introduction of new chemical substances.
Lesson 4: Movement of the Earth’s Crust
A. The Continental Drift Theory
In 1912, a German Meteorologist Alfred Wegener set forth the Continental
Drift Theory. He believed that there was once a supercontinent Pangaea,
meaning “all land” that existed. This giant supercontinent was surrounded by a
single giant sea known as Panthalassa, a Greek word for “all seas”. According to
Wegener, Pangaea split up into two smaller continents. The northern continent
was called Laurasia and the southern continent was called Gondwanaland. He
pointed out how South America and Africa fit together. Ancient climatic
similarities, fossil evidences, and rock structures support the idea of
supercontinent.
Mountain systems in Africa and South America show strong connection.
Fossils of identical trees are found in both continents.
There are three kinds of continental drift:
1) Divergent movements occur when plates pull apart from each other. When
two plates diverge, pieces from such plates sink towards the Earth’s core.
2) Convergent movements occur when plates crush into each other and land
 crumples, forming trenches and mountains.
Examples are the Marianas Trench in the Pacific Ocean and the Andes B. Volcanic Hazards
Mountain in South America. Volcanoes produce a wide variety of potential hazards that can kill people
3) Lateral movements occur when plates move alongside each other in and wildlife, as well as destroy properties. The greatest threats to life are
pyroclastic flows. These hot mixtures of gas and ash pumice flow down the
different directions. The sideswiping motion causes earthquakes.
volcano giving people little chance to escape.
B. Seafloor Spreading The next volcanic danger is lahar: mixtures of volcanic debris and water
The mechanism that operates along the ocean ridge system to create new that can flow for tens and thousands of kilometers down steep slopes at speed of
floor is called seafloor spreading. Harry Hess, an American Geologist presented 100 km/hour. Explosive eruptions can endanger people and property thousands
this hypothesis and he proposed that the seafloor is not permanent but is of kilometers away.
continuously being renewed. He theorized that the ocean ridges are located
above upwelling convection cells in the mantle. As rising material from the Precautionary Measures for Volcanic Eruptions
mantle oozes upward, new lithosphere is formed. The old lithosphere is Before During After
simultaneously destroyed in the deep ocean trenches. Tune in to the radio or Check yourself for injuries
Keep calm. Do not
people with authority for and help in rescuing
panic.
C. The Theory of Plate Tectonics information and instructions. injured people.
Stock some food, water,
This theory describes the forces within the earth that give rise to Tune in to the radio or
and medicine. Keep If indoor, stay under a
continents, ocean basins, mountain ranges, earthquake belts, and other large- flashlights, kerosene lamp, sturdy table. If outdoor,
people with authority for
scale features of the earth’s surface. The theory holds that the earth’s outer shell, announcements and
matches, and first aid kit stay in an open area.
the lithosphere, is divided into eight relatively large plates and a number of instructions.
ready and accessible.
smaller ones. Each plate moves distinctly in relation to other plates; hence the Cover nose with damp Repair damaged
Evacuate if needed.
interior of the plates is generally geologically quiet. All major interactions cloth. properties.
between plates are manifested along plate boundaries. Thus, most of earth’s
seismic activity, volcanism, and mountain building occur along these dynamic C. Landslides
margins. The creation and destruction of lithosphere takes place at such Landslides include a wide range of phenomena involving downslope
margins. Tectonics come from the word tekton which means “to build”. ground movement, such as rockfalls, deep slope failure, shallow debris flows,
and avalanches. Gravity acting on a slope is the primary cause of landslides, but
Folds and Faults there are other factors like saturation of slopes by precipitation, erosion and
Rocks subjected to stress begin to deform into intricate and broad folds, decrease slope stability, earthquakes, and the under cutting of slopes for man-
and if enough stress is applied, rocks break and then move along faults. A fault is made structures like roads, trails, mines, etc.
a rock fracture along which movement has taken place parallel to the fracture.
Three common types of faults are a) normal, b) reverse, and c) strike-slip Precautionary Measures for Landslides
faults. The normal and reverse involves vertical movement along an inclined fault Before After
plane. The strike-slip is characterized by horizontal movement. Devastating Observe the topography around you for Get to safety! Alert your neighbors if
any changes. possible.
earthquakes can occur with horizontal faults. Rocks become plastic under the
Leave your belongings behind but try to
influence of high temperature and pressure and bend and fold. Folds, faults, and Stay updated with the news.
evacuate with your pets.
unconformities are structural features that attest to the deformation of the earth’s Listen for screams of people who may be
crust. Implement preventive techniques on your
trapped and try to assist them or alert
properties.
rescue team.
D. Diastrophism Do not get near the main mudflow or
Make a family disaster plan.
Diastrophism includes the uplift and folding of mountains, faulting and other flooded areas.
processes by which the earth’s crust is deformed. There is much evidence that Protect your important documents and Check your home for possible damages
the surface of the earth has not remained stationary. prepare an emergency kit. especially the pipes and foundation.

Lesson 5: Geological Processes and Hazards

Lesson 6: Hydrometeorological Processes and Hazards
A. Earthquakes Tropical Cyclones
Earthquakes are caused by the faulting of rocks in the earth’s crust and Tropical hurricanes and typhoons are cyclonic storms that originate in the
mantle. When rocks snap, waves travel outward in all directions from the source, tropics. These disturbances originate over water in or near the polar regions of
or focus. Epicenter is the point on the surface directly above the focus. the doldrum belt.
The amount of energy released from the focus during an earthquake is Tropical cyclones are more or less circular, averaging 300 to 500 miles in
called magnitude. Intensity refers to the measure of strength or the effects diameter. The central area of the storm is called the eye. In the eye, the pressure
is low, the air is calm, and the sky is clear. Clouds, wind, and rain are present
brought by earthquake.
around the entire eye. The tropical cyclone is a water convectional storm and is
Earthquakes are recorded by an instrument called seismograph. It reveals found to travel at the rate 10 to 30 mi/hr. In the western Pacific area, these
not only the motion of the earthquake wave but also the time of occurrence. The tropical cyclones are called typhoons.
intensity of an earthquake is often measured using the Rossi-Forrel and the Tropical Cyclones are of 3 types:
Mercalli Scale. The magnitude is measured by Richter scale. 1) Tropical Depression – wind speed less than 63 km/hr.
Earthquakes that are produced by extensive faulting of the ocean floor may 2) Tropical Storm – 64 - 117 km/hr.
be followed by great sea waves known as tsunami or seismic sea waves . Such 3) Typhoon – 118 km/hr. or more
waves have very long wavelengths. When these waves reach shallow water, the Public Storm Warning System in the Philippines
energy moves even higher. The typhoon has a wind speed of 30-60 kph and is expected within
Signal No. 1
36 hours. Classes in Kindergarten are automatically suspended.
Precautionary Measures for Earthquakes The typhoon has a wind speed of 61 – 120 kph and is expected
Before an Earthquake During an Earthquake After the Earthquake within 24 hours. It can bring light to moderate damage to high risk
Signal No. 2
Strap or fasten heavy Do not panic. Have a Check yourself and structures. Classes in elementary and high school are automatically
furniture to the wall. presence of mind. others for injuries. suspended.
If you’re indoor, drop Check water and The typhoon has a wind speed of 121 – 170 kph and is expected
down to your knees, cover electrical lines for within 18 hours. It can bring heavy damage to high risk structures.
Plan and memorize the Signal No. 3 Almost all banana plants may be downed and some trees may be
your head and neck with damages. Inspect for fire
exits in a building. uprooted. Classes in elementary and high school are automatically
your arms, and stay under and if there’s any, control
a sturdy table. it immediately. suspended.
Avoid using telephone The typhoon has a wind speed of 171 – 220 kph and is expected
Mark the place where first If you’re outdoor, stay in within 12 hours. It can bring very heavy damage to high risk
unless in case of
aid kits, fire extinguishers, an open area. If you’re in Signal No. 4 structures. It can cause almost total damage to banana plantations
emergency. Clean up
and communication a vehicle, stop in the and rice and corn plantations may suffer severe losses. All billboards
spills and other
facilities can be found. safest possible place. may be blown down.
flammable materials.
Execute what you have Be prepared for Signal No. 5 The super typhoon has a wind speed of more than 220 kph and is
Practice earthquake expected within 8 hours. It can bring widespread damage to high risk
practiced in the aftershocks. Obey public
emergency drill regularly. structures. Most tall trees may be broken or uprooted. Most
earthquake drill. safety precautions.
residential and institutional buildings may be severely damaged.
 Electrical power distribution and communication services may be long period causing continuous rains which may last for weeks during the months
disrupted. of June to September. Thus, aside from typhoon, the southwest monsoon is
responsible for the great portion of the rainfall during our wet season.
PAG-ASA’s Color-Coded Rainfall Advisories
In June 2012, the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration (PAG-ASA) began using a color-coded rainfall and flood
warning system to help communities be ready for the upcoming disasters.
A yellow rainfall advisory is issued when the rain continues in one hour.
Flooding may be possible in low-lying areas. The orange rainfall advisory is
raised when there is a heavy rainfall in more than one hour. Flooding is a definite
threat. Communities are advised to be alert for possible evacuation. The red
rainfall advisory is raised when the observed heavy rainfall has continued for Lesson 7: Coastal Processes and Hazards
Waves
Marine processes are associated with the waves. Waves are caused by
wind speed, duration, and fetch. The velocity of the waves varies, depending on
the depth of the water: the shallower the water, the faster the waves move.
Erosion
It is the wearing away of soil along the coast caused by destructive waves.
There are four main processes that cause coastal erosion:
1. Corrosion / Abrasion – when waves pick up beach materials (like pebbles)
and hurl them at the base of a cliff.
2. Hydraulic action – when waves hit the base of a cliff, compressing air into
cracks and thereby causing the cliff material to break away as air rushes
out of the cracks when waves retreat.
more than three hours. The downpours have reached an alarming level. There is 3. Attrition – when waves cause rocks and pebbles to bump into each other
a need for evacuation in low-lying areas. and break up.
4. Corrosion / Solution – when certain types of cliff erode as a result of weak
Precautionary Measures for Typhoons acids in the sea.
Before During After
Store enough supply of food Stay inside the house Be sure that the house is
(no cook) and water that and keep calm. safe and stable before Tides
would last for at least three entering. Tides are caused by differences in the gravitational pull exerted by the
days. moon on the earth. The moon’s gravitational pull is strongest on the side of the
Always keep flashlights, Keep updates with the Have a knowledgeable earth nearest the moon and weakest in the side farthest from the moon. The
candles, match, batteries, latest weather forecast. person to inspect difference in the strength of the moon’s gravitational pull produce tides. It causes
transistor radio and first aid kit electrical connections. the earth to stretch, producing the ocean bulges that extend nearly 1 meter
available. above the average surface level of the ocean. This produces two sets of ocean
Place important documents in In case of flooding, turn Boil water before tides per day – two high and two low.
a zip bag. off the main source of drinking and beware of
electricity. contaminated food.
The sun also contributes to ocean tides but is only half as effective as the
Examine your house and If there is a need to Extend help to those moon. When the sun, earth, and moon are all lined up, we have higher-than-
repair unstable parts as much evacuate, do it who are adversely average high tides and lower-than-average low tides. These are called spring
as possible. immediately and calmly. affected by the typhoon. tides. Spring tides occur at the times of a new or full moon. When the moon is
Charge all gadgets. It is better Avoid wading through half way between new and full, high tides are lower-than-average and low tides
if you have power bank and flood waters to avoid are higher-than-average. These are called neap tides.
rechargeable lamps with fan. electrocution and water
– borne diseases. Storm Surge
Keep updated about the It is the abnormal rise of water brought by a storm. During the storm, the
progress of the typhoon
through the television or radio.
water level increases its height beyond the normal tide. This is what we call
storm tide. But if it moves inland, it is referred to as storm surge.
Floods A storm surge is different from a tsunami, even though both of them involve
When the discharge of a stream becomes so great that it exceeds the the rise in water level along the coastline. A tsunami is caused by an earthquake,
capacity of its channel, it overflows its banks as flood. Floods are among the while storm surge is caused by a storm.
deadliest and most destructive of all geologic hazards.
Impact of Land Development and Waste Disposal on Coasts
Tornado Human activities such as land development, waste disposal, and
A tornado is a very small, localized, destructive inward whirl of air, construction cause different changes in coastal features. It is vital that impacts of
counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere. Tornado has a funnel – shaped these activities be prevented or mitigated to help the coast in withstanding
cloud that form from the low small cumulonimbus cloud. The funnel may rise, coastal hazards.
descend, and twist about in a violent fashion.
When the funnel reaches the ground, it leaves complete destruction in its Coastal Land Development
path. The sudden reduction of pressure on the outside of buildings as the spout It is due to the demand in space, structures, and facilities that are used for
passes over them often causes the buildings to explode. various human needs. Several ways must be employed to control its impact on
If the tornado is seen in time, one may take a course at right angles to the coasts. In the Philippines, PD 1586 has established the implementation of
storm’s path and escape injury. The safest place to be in is an excavation in the Philippine Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), which allows the
ground with a substantial roof and located some distance away from buildings. A determination of the possible environmental consequences of implementing a
tornado-like vortex of cloud over water is called waterspout. project. It also plans possible preventive methods for mitigation of the determined
risks.
Monsoon
We experience two types of monsoon winds in the Philippines, namely the Waste Disposal
Northeast monsoon and the Southwest monsoon. During winter, the Asiatic The increase in development and population may lead to increased
continent is snowbound and the high-pressure cell in China sends northeasterly amounts of waste disposed of in a coastal area. The wastes are sometimes
winds over the Philippines, giving us cold temperatures, and causing much disposed of in landfills built near the coasts. The construction of these landfills
rainfall over the eastern coast. This happens during the months of November to not only causes land and water pollution to the coastal area but also amplifies
February. the effects of coastal erosion and results in saltwater intrusion. Effective solid
During the summer of the Northern hemisphere, the Asiatic continent waste management planning and implementation must be carried out by the
becomes warmer than the surrounding seas and a low-pressure cell develops residents and users of coastal areas. Managing solid wastes at the community
over the continent. This causes the flow of moist southwest wind over the level prevents coastal deterioration. Industrial wastes must also be properly
Philippines. when this southwest flow becomes thick in depth, it persists for a managed and not released in coastal areas.