PETROLOGY

UNIT III
 Petrology
Scientific study of rocks, including their
composition, texture, structure; occurrence
distribution; and conditions of origin. Petrology
is concerned with all three.

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 Major Rock Types
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten
magma or lava near, at, or below the Earth’s surface.

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the lithification of

inorganic and organic sediments deposited near or at the
Earth’s surface.

Metamorphic rocks are formed when preexisting rocks

are transformed into new rocks by heat and pressure,
usually below the Earth’s surface.
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 Rock Cycle

A possible sequence involves the

crystallization of magma to form igneous
rocks that are then broken down to
sediments (clasts) as a result of
weathering, the sediments later being
lithified to form sedimentary rocks which
are in turn altered by heat, pressure and
or fluids to become metamorphic rocks.
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 Volcanoes
Volcanoes are rather unpredictable . Some erupt
regularly, others have not erupted in modern
history. Scientists classify them as,
Active - erupts continually or periodically
Dormant - known to erupt within modern times
Extinct - not known to have erupted within
modern history

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 Crater

There is often a funnel-shaped pit or depression at

the top of a volcanic cone. This pit is called a crater.
If the crater becomes very large as a result of the
collapse of its walls, it is called a caldera. A caldera
may also form when the top of a volcano explodes
or collapses.

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 Igneous

The word, igneous means from fire or

heat. Igneous rocks form when molten
lava (magma) cools and turns to solid
rock. There are two types- Genetic
Intrusive- cools slowly inside the Earth (Ex:
Granite). They have large mineral grains naked
eye. Greek god of the underworld (Plutonic). volcano
Extrusive- Magma that reaches the earth’s surface
and rapidly cools. (Ex: Basalt). The mineral grains
are small. Greek god of fire (Volcanic).
MAGMA- inside the Earth
LAVA- outside of the Earth magma

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 Also Classify Igneous Rocks by Composition

Chemistry
Mineralogy

The igneous rocks are classified based on silica

%, silica saturation and depth of formation.

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1. Based on silica content (%) (SiO2) :

a) Acidic Igneous rocks: It is rich in silica

content (>65% of SiO2) Ex: Granite, Pegmatite
b) Intermediate Igneous rocks: Silica
percentage is 55-65% Ex: Syenite, Diorite
c) Basic Igneous rocks: Silica content is 45-
55% Ex: Dolerite, Gabbro
d) Ultra-basic Igneous rocks: Silica content
is <45% Ex: Dunite

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 2. Classification based on silica
saturation:
1. Oversaturated igneous rocks: when the parent magma is rich in
silica, saturated minerals like feldspars and the surplus quantity of silica
crystallizes as quartz. Oversaturated rocks are equivalent to acidic igneous rocks.
Unsaturated minerals like olivine, nepheline, leucite never occur in over
saturated rocks. Eg: granites, granodiorites, dacite, rhyolites .
2. Saturated igneous rocks: when the parent magma has enough silica for
the formation of minerals, the resulting rocks possess neither quartz nor any
unsaturated mineral. Presences of saturated minerals (feldspars) are seen in
Syenite, Diorite, Anorthosite, Gabbro. Saturated rocks are equivalent to
intermediate igneous rocks.
3. Unsaturated igneous rocks : when the parent magma has silica less
than what is required for the formation of saturated minerals.
Quartz is possible to the extent, and feldspars, olivine, nepheline, leucite are
present usually. Under saturated rocks are roughly equivalent to basic /
Ultrabasic rocks

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 3. Based on mode of origin ( or )
classification based on depth of
formation
a) Plutonic rocks: (also called intrusive igneous rocks) These
are deep seated rocks formed under slow cooling and great pressure
conditions. They exhibit equigranular texture because the magma has
cooled slowly under uniform pressure. Ex: Granite, Syenite, Diorite,
Gabbro
b) Hypabyssal rocks: They are formed by the solidification of
magma nearer to the surface of the Earth’s crust. They show
porphyritic texture because of rapid cooling of magma. Ex: Pegmatite,
Porphyry, Dolerite
c) Volcanic rocks: (also called extrusive igneous rocks)
These are formed on the surface of the crust by the consolidation of
the lava. Here, the minerals cannot be distinguished with naked eye
because of very small grain size and is due to rapid cooling and
chilling. Ex: Basalt

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 Igneous Rock Categories:
Felsic to Mafic
Igneous rocks are divided into three broad groups Granitic, Basaltic,
and Andesitic depending on their proportion of felsic (light-colored)
to mafic (dark-colored) minerals.
Felsic Granitic rocks contain more light-colored feldspars and silica than
dark- colored minerals. Because of the high feldspar and silica
content of Granitic rocks, geologists refer to them as being felsic (fel
for feldspar and si for silica).
The primary minerals in granitic rocks include quartz, feldspar, biotite,
and amphibole.
Granitic rocks make up about 70% of the Earth’s crust.
Basaltic rocks contain mostly darker silicate minerals and calcium-
rich plagioclase feldspar and little quartz. Because of the high
percentage of ferrromagnesian minerals in basaltic rocks, geologist
refer to them as mafic (ma for magnesium and f for ferrum).
Basaltic rocks are dark colored and tend to be more dense than granitic
rocks.
Andesitic rocks have a composition between granites and basalts.
Mafic They generally contain about 25% dark silicate minerals (amphibole,
pyroxene, and biotite mica) with the remaining 75% consisting of
plagioclase feldspar.
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 Classification of Igneous Rocks
Textures:
Texture is a term used to describe the size, shape, and
arrangement of interlocking crystallized mineral grains in an
igneous rock.
Aphanitic- crystals too small to see by eye
Phaneritic- can see the constituent minerals
Fine grained- < 1 mm diameter
Medium grained- 1-5 mm diameter
Coarse grained- 5-50 mm diameter
Very coarse grained- > 50 mm diameter
Porphyritic- bimodal grain size distribution
Glassy- no crystals formed

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 Forms or shapes
Batholith: Massive, discordant intrusive body
covering at least 100 km2

Stock: Massive, discordant intrusive body covering

less than 100 km2

Dike: Tabular, discordant intrusive body

Sill: Tabular, concordant intrusive body

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 Pyroclastics
Forms of Extrusive
Lava flow Igneous rocks

Volcanic neck

Igneous dike

Igneous Sill

Batholith

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 Volcano Formation Volcano

Volcano Mountain Volcano Pipe

Volcano Hill (Extinct)

Lava Flow

Sill

Dike

Plutonic Body

64
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 Intrusive Rock Bodies

• Volcanic neck
– Shallow intrusion formed when magma
solidifies in throat of volcano Light-colored dikes
• Dike
– Tabular intrusive structure that cuts across
any layering in country rock
• Sill
– Tabular intrusive structure that parallels
layering in country rock Basaltic sill
• Pluton
– Large, blob-shaped intrusive body formed
of coarse-grained igneous rock, commonly
granitic
– Small plutons (exposed over <100 km2) are Sierra Nevada batholith
called stocks, large plutons (exposed over
>100 km2) are called batholiths
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 Sill

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 Dike

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• pluton – irregular
body
• dikes – vertical
sheet intrusions
• sills – horizontal
sheet intrusion
• laccoliths – lens
shaped
• ring dikes, cone
sheets – a cone
shaped intrusion
• dike swarm –
several
• pipe of neck –
source of
nourishment of a
volcano lopolith and cone sill – mineral deposits
• batholiths – largest
body of an intrusion
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 Columnar

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 Bowen’s Reaction Series

Experiments that determined the sequence of crystallization of

minerals from a gradually cooling mafic (basaltic) magma
Conducted by Norman L. Bowen prior to 1916

These experiments totally rewrote our understanding of igneous

rock formation

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 Bowen’s Reaction Series
Bowen’s Reaction Series is a model that describes the formation of igneous
rocks with an emphasis on the effect of temperature changes, melting points,
and cooling rates, on the types of minerals crystallizing and their resultant
rock compositions.
Once crystallization begins, the composition of the liquid magma changes.
Minerals with higher melting points will begin to solidify leaving behind a
liquid from which minerals with lower melting temperatures will eventually
solidify.
An ideal discontinuous crystallizing series progresses from the minerals
olivine - pyroxenes - amphiboles – biotite.
An ideal continuous series progresses from calcium to sodium-rich plagioclase
feldspar.
Both series merge and are followed by orthoclase feldspar, muscovite, and
quartz, with quartz exhibiting the lowest crystallization temperature.

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 Bowen’s Reaction Series

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 Granite
Granite is a felsic intrusive igneous rock and has either a phaneritic or porphyritic texture.
Granite cools very slowly and often forms large masses of rock that are referred to as
plutons or batholiths.
Granite usually contains about 20-50% quartz, 30-60% feldspar, and the remaining 5-10%
darker minerals such as biotite.
The quartz grains are usually spherical in shape and are a white to grayish color.
The feldspars grains are mostly potassium and sodium rich varieties with individual
rectangular shaped grains. The feldspars are often white, grey, or pinkish in color
depending on the chemical composition.
The remaining darker minerals usually consist of muscovite, biotite and amphibole
and are generally black.

Coarse-grained granite Fine-grained granite

Quartz

Feldspar
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 Granite

• Light-colored, coarse-
grained, no pattern
• Mostly quartz,
feldspar, mica, and
hornblende
• Often used for
buildings and
monuments

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 Basalt

• Dark-colored, fine-
grained, extrusive
• Formed where lava
erupted onto surface
• Most widespread igneous
rocks
• Found locally in the
Palisades along west
shore of Hudson River,
Connecticut River valley

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 Basalt
Basalt is a mafic, extrusive fine-grained dark green to black volcanic
rock with a porphyritic texture.
Basalt is composed primarily of pyroxene, and calcium-rich plagioclase
with small amounts of olivine and amphibole.

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 tephra deposits

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 columnar basalts
2000 years ago

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 Pyroclastic

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 FORMS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Dikes are small (lessthan<20 m wide)

shallow intrusions that show a discordant
relationship to the rocks in which they
intrude. Discordant means that they cut
across preexisting structures.
They may occur as isolated bodies or may
occur as swarms of dikes emanating from a
large intrusive body at depth.
Sills are also small (<50 m thick) shallow
intrusions that show a concordant
relationship with the rocks that they
intrude. Sills usually are fed by dikes, but
these may not be exposed in the field.

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 Continue…
Lopoliths
are relatively small plutons that usually
show a concave downward upper surface.
This shape may have resulted from the
reduction in volume that occurs when
magmas crystallize, with the weight of
the overlying rocks causing collapse of into
the space once occupied by the magma
when it had a larger volume as a liquid.
Plutons
Plutons are generally much larger intrusive
bodies that have intruded much deeper in
the crust.
Although they may show sharp contacts
with the surrounding rocks into which they
intruded, at deeper levels in the crust the
contacts are often gradational.
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 Continue…
Batholiths are very large intrusive bodies,
usually so large that there bottoms are
rarely exposed. Sometimes they are
composed of several smaller intrusions.
Stocks are smaller bodies that are likely
fed from deeper level batholiths. Stocks
may have been feeders for volcanic
eruptions, but because large amounts of
erosion are required to expose a stock or
batholith, the associated volcanic rocks are
rarely exposed.

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CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SILICA %

Nature Silica % Rock examples

Acidic  65 Granite, Pegmatites; (coarse) ; Rhyolite (fine )

Intermediate 55 – 65 Syenite (coarse) ; Trachyte (fine )

Basic 45 – 55 Gabbro (coarse ); Basalt ( fine )

Ultra basic < 45 Picrite, Peridotite , Dunite ( coarse )

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 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SILICA
SATURATION
Oversaturated igneous rocks: when the parent magma is rich in
silica, saturated minerals like feldspars and the surplus quantity of silica
crystallizes as quartz.
Unsaturated minerals like olivine, nepheline, leucite never occur in over
saturated rocks. Eg: granites, granodiorites, dacite, rhyolites .
Saturated igneous rocks: when the parent magma has enough silica for
the formation of minerals, the resulting rocks possess neither quartz nor any
unsaturated mineral. Presences of saturated minerals (feldspars) are seen in
Syenite, Diorite, Anorthosite, Gabbro.
Unsaturated igneous rocks : when the parent magma has silica less
than what is required for the formation of saturated minerals.
Quartz is possible to the extent, and feldspars, olivine, nepheline, leucite are
present usually.

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CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DEPTH OF
FORMATION
PLUTONIC ROCKS: The igneous rocks which have formed under high
temp & pressure at greater depths in the presence of volatiles in the
earth’s crust are called plutonic rocks. Greater pressure ensure total
crystallization of minerals formed and the hot surroundings slow down the
process of solidification. The net result of all these processes is the development of
coarse grained texture. Eg: Granite . SLOW COOLING & SLOW
CRYSTALLIZATION OF MAGMA eg; Granite
VOLCANIC ROCKS: The igneous rocks which have formed under low
temp & pressure at shallow depths in the absence of volatiles in the
earth’ crust are called volcanic rocks. Rapid cooling and quick
crystallization of lava makes faster the process of solidification due to heat
difference. The net result of all these processes is the development of fine grained
texture. Eg: basalt
HYPABYSSAL ROCKS: The igneous rocks which have formed under
moderate temp & pressure at shallow depths are called hypabyssal
rocks. Medium rate of cooling causes for the formation of medium grained rocks.
Eg: dolerite

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 Bowen’s Reaction Series

Discontinuous Series Continuous Series

1400 ºC Mafic
Calcium rich
Olivine

pa e
ld s a s
Pyroxene

r
Fe i o c l
Crystallization
Temperature

Amphibole

ag
Pl
Biotite Sodium rich Intermediate

Orthoclase Feldspar
Muscovite mica
800 ºC Quartz
Felsic
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Bowen determined that specific minerals form at specific
temperatures as a magma cools.
At the higher temperatures associated with mafic and intermediate
magmas, the general progression can be separated into two
branches.
The continuous branch describes the evolution of the plagioclase
feldspars as they evolve from being calcium-rich to more sodium-
rich. The discontinuous branch describes the formation of the
mafic minerals olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica.

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 pillows in basalt

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 Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks are rocks formed when

particles of sediment build up and are
“cemented together” by the effect of pressure
and minerals.
Rocks formed by consolidation of sediments
Classified by the type of sediments
5 % by volume of the upper crust
75 % by exposed surface area of continents

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 Two Major Types of Sediments

Clastic sediments are physically deposited particles

derived from weathered rocks
Chemical and biochemical sediments(Organic)include
minerals carried in solution such as calcite and halite

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 From Sediments to Solid Rocks
Lithification is the process of converting sediments (loose grains
or crystals) into solid rocks
Occurs by increased pressure and temperature during diagenesis
(changes that happen to sediments after deposition)

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 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic is derived from the Greek for ‘broken’
Clastic rocks represent the accumulation of
weathered and eroded fragments of older,
pre-existing rocks of all types

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Non-clastic rocks form by chemical precipitation
(settling out from a solution.) Limestone is made
from calcite, chert from quartz, and halite is rock
salt

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 Organic Sedimentary Rocks

Formed from the remains of once-living

organisms

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Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Rocks precipitated directly from solution

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 The Two Types of Lithification
Compaction – sediments are squeezed together by the weight of
overlying sediments into a solid mass
Cementation – minerals precipitate around the sediments and bind
them into a solid rock
Sedimentary rocks can be composed of sediments created from
any of three great families of rock (igneous, sedimentary,
metamorphic)
Chemical cementation commonly includes calcite, gypsum and
halite

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 Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks commonly contain fossils
In fact, some sedimentary rocks are almost entirely composed of
fossils
Can exhibit extensive horizontal layers called bedding

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 • Classified by particle size
– Boulder - >256 mm
– Cobble - 64 to 256 mm
– Pebble - 2 to 64 mm
– Sand - 1/16 to 2 mm
– Silt - 1/256 to 1/16 mm
– Clay - <1/256 mm

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 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES:
1. BEDDING (STRATIFICATION): ARRANGMENT OF SEDIMENT
PARTICLES INTO DISTINCT LAYERS
  a) CHANGES IN SEDIMENT:
  b) CHANGES IN TRANSPORT ENERGY
 2. GRADED BEDDINGS: SEDIMENT LAYER (FORMED BY A SINGLE
DEPOSITONAL EVENT) IN WHICH PARTICLE SIZE VARIES
GRADUALLY WITH THE COARSEST PARTICLES ON THE BOTTOM
3. CEMENTATION: PRECIPITATION OF DISSOLVED IONS IN THE PORE

SPACE
a) CALCIUM CARBONATE
b) SILICA
4.CLASTIC TEXTURE: FORMED BY COMPACTION AND CEMENTATION
OF SEDIMENT PARTICLES HAS CLASTIC TEXTURE
 5.RECRYSTALLIZATION: RECRYSTALLIZATION OF CERTAIN
UNSTABLE MINERALS INTO NEW, MORE STABLE MINERALS
  c) IRON COMPOUNDS
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 CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

• MUDSTONES
• SANDSTONES
• CONGLOMERATES
• BRECCIAS

A. DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

1. INTRODUCTION: CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PARTICLE SIZE

a) ALL DETRITAL ROCKS ARE CLASTIC

b) SAND AND SILT PREDOMINANTLY QUARTZ

c) FINER-SIZED PARTICLES OF CLAY MINERALS

 

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 2.SANDSTONES:

a) 25% OF ALL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

b) SANDSTONE PARTICLES (1/16-2 MM IN DIAMETER)

c) PRACTICAL USES OF SANDSTONES: BUILDINGS AND RESERVOIR

FOR FOSSIL FUELS AND GROUNDWATER

 
3.CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS

a) GRAINS LARGER THAN 2 MM

b) CONGLOMERATES HAVE ROUNDED GRAINS

c) BRECCIAS HAVE ANGULAR GRAINS

 

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 CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS

1. INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

a) LIMESTONE (INORGANIC)

i) FORMATION

ii) OOLITIC LIMESTONE

iii) TUFA

iv) TRAVERTINE

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 Sedimentary Structures
Bedding Planes Laminations Cross-Bedding

Copyright @ Bruce Molnia, USGS Copyright @ Bruce Molnia, USGS Copyright @Marli Miller

Ripple Marks Ripples and Mudcracks Mud Cracks

Copyright @ Bruce Molnia, Terra Copyright @Michael Collier Courtesy NASA Visible Earth
Photographics 9/27/20
 Cross-bedding & mudcracks

2. CROSS-BEDDING: SEDIMENTARY LAYERS DEPOSITED AT AN

ANGLE TO THE UNDERLYING SET OF BEDS

 
3. SURFACE SEDIMENTARY FEATURES

a) RIPPLE MARKS: SMALL SURFACE RIDGES PRODUCED WHEN

WATER OR WIND FLOWS OVER SEDIMENT AFTER IT IS

DEPOSITED
 
b) MUDCRACKS: OCCUR ON THE TOP OF A SEDIMENT LAYER

WHEN MUDDY SEDIMENT DRIES AND CONTRACTS

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
Shale
Shale is a fine-grained, moderately to well-sorted rock formed by
the compaction of well rounded silt-and clay-sized grains.
 Shales often contain fine laminations which helps impart fissility to
the rock. Fissility is a term used to describe layered laminations
formed by compression forces exerted over long-time periods.
 Shale usually contains about 50% silt, 35% clay, and 15% chemical
materials, many shales may also contain organic plant materials and
fossils.
 Shale is characterized by thinly, laminated layers, representing
successive deposition of sediments.
 Shale accounts for about 50% of all sedimentary rocks deposited on
the Earth’s surface.
 The sediments that form shale are most likely deposited very
gradually in non-turbulent, environments such as a lakes, lagoons,
flood plains, and deep-ocean basins.
 Sandstone
 Sandstone rocks are composed almost entirely of sand-sized quartz
grains (0.063 – 2 mm) cemented together through lithification.
 Sandstone rocks are generally classified as quartz sandstone, arkose
(quartz with feldspars), or graywacke (quartz with feldspar, clay,
and other coarse-grained mineral fragments).
 Sandstones comprise about 20% of all sedimentary rocks and are
formed in a variety of different environments including fluvial
(rivers), marine, coastal (oceans and beaches), aeolian (wind blown),
and glacial (ice).
 The differences in texture, sorting, and rounding help geologists
decipher the environmental conditions that formed the sandstone.
 Limestone
 Limestone consists almost entirely of the mineral calcite (CaCO3) and can
form by either inorganic or biochemical processes.
 Limestones form under a variety of environmental conditions and for this
reason several types of limestone exist.
 Limestone accounts for about 10% of all sedimentary rocks, and of those,
limestones with marine biochemical origin are the most common.
 Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcium
carbonate. Pure limestone's are white or almost white. Because of impurities,
such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide and other materials, many
limestone's exhibit different colours, especially on weathered surfaces. If
metamorphism occurs e.g. during the mountain building process limestone re-
crystallises into marble.
 Mudstone
 Mudstone consists of very silt-sized and clay-sized grains
( <0.0625 mm) and are often well consolidated with little pore
space.
 Mudstones do not contain laminations or fissility, but they
may contain bedding-plane features such as mud cracks or
ripples. Mud cracks are formed by subaerial drying conditions.
Ripples suggest gentle wave activity or water movement
during deposition.
 Conglomerate
 Conglomerates are poorly-sorted composites of a wide range of
rounded grain sizes ranging from sand to cobbles (< 0.062 to > 2 mm).
 Conglomerates usually contain a framework of large grains held
together by a matrix of sands, silt, and clay-sized particles.
 The combination of poorly-sorted, predominantly coarse, rounded
grains suggests that conglomerates form in high-energy environments
such as steep-gradient streams.

South Carolina Geological Survey

 Breccia
 Breccia is a poorly-sorted composite of a wide range of grain sizes
ranging from clays to gravels (< 0.062 to > 2 mm).
 Breccias usually contain a framework of gravel-sized grains held
together by a matrix of sands, silts, and clay.
 Breccia is similar to a conglomerate except that it consists of angular
grains, as opposed to rounded grains.
 The combination of poorly-sorted, predominantly coarse, angular
grains suggests that breccias form from rapid deposition in high energy
environments such as steep-gradient streams, glacial flood deposits,
landslides, talus, alluvial fans, or in association with faulting.
 Mudcracks

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 Metamorphic Rocks
“meta” = to change
“morph” = form
Metamorphic rocks are formed from Parent rocks (pre-
existing rocks)

Metamorphic rocks are formed by the transformation of

previously-existing rocks in the solid state due to
increased temperature and pressure (Metamorphism)

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 Types of Metamorphic Rocks

• Foliated rocks – have visible layers or long

grains of minerals. The minerals had been
heated and squeezed in parallel layers, may
have bands of different colored minerals.
Includes: slate, gneiss, phyllite, schist.
• Nonfoliated rocks – no layers or bands,
more even in color and usually no visible
grains.
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 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism can change the mineralogy, texture and/or
the chemical composition of a “parent rock” while
maintaining its solid form
Note that the rock does not melt (temperature range 250 to
700 C)

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 Agents of Metamorphism

Heat or temperature
Pressure
Chemical Environment

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 Types of Metamorphism
Different approaches to classification

1. Based on principal process or agent

– Dynamic Metamorphism
– Thermal Metamorphism
– Dynamo-thermal Metamorphism

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2. Based on setting (pressure and temperature
conditions /tectonic)
– Contact Metamorphism
• Pyrometamorphism
– Regional Metamorphism
• Orogenic Metamorphism
• Burial Metamorphism
• Ocean Floor Metamorphism
– Hydrothermal Metamorphism
– Fault-Zone Metamorphism (cataclastic or
mylonitic)
– Impact or Shock Metamorphism
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 Contact metamorphism

• Low pressure/HIGH temperature

• “Country” rocks baked by igneous intrusion (pluton)
• Example: Hornfels, skarn (baked carbonate rocks),
quartzite, marble

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Contact Metamorphism
Most easily recognized where a pluton is introduced into
shallow rocks in a static environment
(Pluton=intrusive igneous body, like a batholith)

® Hornfelses (granofelses) commonly with relict

textures and structures

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 Pyrometamorphism
A minor type of contact metamorphism
Very high temperatures at very low pressures, generated by
a volcanic or subvolcanic body
Also developed in xenoliths (pieces of solid rocks carried
up by magma)
Pyrometamorphism may be accompanied by various
degrees of partial melting
 Regional and Contact
Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism occurs
where high temperature and pressures
occur over large region (plate
tectonics)
Contact metamorphism is limited to
smaller areas such as around a magma
intrusion into bedrock

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Orogenic Metamorphism is the type of
metamorphism associated with convergent plate
margins
• Dynamo-thermal: one or more episodes of
orogeny with combined elevated geothermal
gradients and deformation (differential stress)
• Foliated rocks are a characteristic product

Also known as dynamothermal - produces both foliated

and non-foliated metamorphic rocks.
Burial metamorphism = low-grade metamorphism
in sedimentary basins
– Metamorphic effects attributed to increased
temperature and pressure due to burial
– Occurs in areas that have not experienced significant
deformation or orogeny
– Mild deformation, no igneous intrusions discovered
Ocean-Floor Metamorphism affects the oceanic crust
at ocean ridge spreading centers
•A wide range of temperatures at relatively low
pressure
•Seawater penetrates down fracture systems, where it
becomes heated, and leaches metals and silica from
the hot basalts
•Considerable metasomatic alteration, notably loss of
Ca and Si and gain of Mg and Na
 Hydrothermal metamorphism

• Low pressure/low temperature

• Hot, chemically active waters react with
the surrounding rocks
• Example: Serpentinite, soapstone
Usually involves METASOMATISM (metamorphism plus
exchange of ions from an external source)
Difficult type to constrain: hydrothermal effects often play
some role in most of the other types of metamorphism
Hydrothermal metamorphism: hot water streams
add/remove ions. May promote ore formation.
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Fault-Zone and Impact Metamorphism
– High rates of deformation and strain with only
minor recrystallization
(a) Shallow fault zone with fault breccia
(b) Slightly deeper fault zone (exposed by erosion) with
some ductile flow and fault mylonite

– Impact metamorphism at meteorite (or other bolide)

impact craters
– Both correlate with dynamic metamorphism, based
on process
 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic processes cause many changes in existing
rocks, including increased density, formation of larger
crystals, foliation, and formation of new minerals.
 Metamorphic rocks are generally classified as;
1) Foliated Rocks

2) Non-Foliated Rocks

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 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks Include:

1) Slate
Forms from low-grade metamorphism of shale.
Fine-grained foliated rock. But foliation is not visible.
Has excellent rock cleavage and splits easily. This property
makes slate useful for tiles and billiard tables.
Used for: Billiards, chalkboards, roofs, floors
Slate

Shale
 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks Include:

2) Phyllite
Forms from intermediate-grade metamorphism of slate.
Fine-grained foliated rock,with visible foliation.
New minerals are often formed. For example, Garnet.

Phyllite

Slate
 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks Include:

3) Schist
 Forms from high-grade metamorphism of phyllite.
 Coarse-grained foliated rock, with distinct foliation
These rocks are “platy” and can be split into flakes or slabs.
 New minerals are often formed. For example, Garnet.

Schist
 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Rocks Include:
4) Gneiss
Forms from high-grade metamorphism of schist.
Coarse-grained foliated rock, with distinct foliation.
These rocks display elongated and granular minerals which
give the rock a dark and light banded appearance.
Most common minerals are quartz and feldspar.

Granite Gneiss
 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Non - Foliated Rocks Include:
5) Marble
Coarse crystalline network of calcite grains that form as a result
of recrystallization. The parent rock of marble is Limestone.
During recrystallization of limestone, bedding, fossils, and other
sedimentary features are destroyed.
Marble is used for statues, buildings and gravestones.

Limestone Marble
 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Non - Foliated Rocks Include:

6) Quartzite
 Forms when silica sand grains and silica cement recrystallize
forming a coarse grained network of silica. The parent rock of
quartzite is quartz sandstone.
Moderate to high-grade metamorphism fuses the sand grains.
Sometimes outlines of the original grains may be seen, a feature
called ghosting.
Quartzite
 Quartzite is a very hard rock

Quartz
Sandstone
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 Laboratory Testing of Rocks

Uniaxial Compressive Strength

Tensile Strength
Shear Strength
Modulus of Elasticity
Triaxial Test

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 Uniaxial Compression Test

GCTS Device ARA Setup at Tyndall AFB, Florida

 Triaxial Compression (ASTM D 2664)

Rock Triaxial Cell Computerized Compression Frame

 Tools Geologists Use

Compass
Maps
Rock hammer
Big machines for
drilling
Hand lens
Dilute hydrochloric
acid

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http://www.theimage.com/mineral/index.
htm
http://webmineral.com/specimensM.sht
ml

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