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what are
igneous rocks
and how do
they form?
Igneous Rocks
early controversy
18th century german
mineralogist Abraham Werner
proposed Neptunism theory
all rocks precipitated in layers
from universal sea
active volcanoes explained by
burning of subterranean coal
beds
Igneous Rocks
volume of precipitated rock much
greater than could have been in
solution
volcanic and related rocks
originate as molten rock material
deep in Earth
known as Plutonic theory -
named for Pluto, Greek god of
the underworld
Igneous Rocks
see
evidence
such
molten
material
exists
every
time a
volcano
erupts
Igneous Rocks
includes all rocks formed by
cooling and solidification of
molten rock material or
magma
igneous from Latin "ignis"
meaning "pertaining to fire”
what is
magma?
Magmas
naturally occurring molten rock
material beneath the Earth's
surface
a silicate,
carbonate ,
sulfide,
oxide-, or Molten
Sulfur
sulfur melt
Magmas
major characteristics include:
35-79% silicon dioxide (SiO2) with
oxides of other major elements (Al,
Mg, Fe, Ca, Ti, Na and K)
temperatures 700˚ to 1200˚C
dissolved gases (H2O, CO2, CO, F, Cl,
NH3, CH4, S, H2S and SO2)
crystal carried in suspension
grouped into 4 categories
based on SiO2 content:
ultramafic (≤45% silica)
mafic (45-52% silica) basic
intermediate (53-65% silica) vs.
felsic (>65% silica) acid
 … how do
magmas
form?
Origin of Magma
Earth’s crust & mantle
solid, but must melt
insufficient heat for
complete melting
solid rocks do not melt
instantaneously to liquid
melt over temperature
interval with both solids
and melt present
Origin of Magma

conditions favorable for magma formation

occur beneath both divergent and
convergent plate boundaries
 …once
formed,
what
happens to
magmas?
Magma Ascent
mobility within Earth controlled by
physical properties
 buoyant as long as less dense than
surrounding or country rocks
 internal resistance to flow or viscosity
cooling magmas solidify with
crystallization of minerals and release
of gases and hot water-rich fluids;
crystals sink or carried in suspension
Bowen’s Reaction Series
N.L. Bowen (1922) described mineral
crystallization sequence in basalt magma
 he recognized
two different
types of reaction
between
crystalline solids
and cooling
magma
Bowen’s Reaction Series

Continuous Reaction Series

old crystals react with the melt to form new crystals
with different composition but constant atomic
structure
Bowe’ns Reaction Series

Discontinuous Reaction Series

old crystals react with melt to form new crystals with
both new composition and new atomic structure
 …what can
happen to
change a
magma?
Magma Fractionation
separation of crystallized
minerals from liquid

reaction with surrounding

country or wall rocks
Magma Fractionation
accidental mingling/
mixing of two magmas
with different
compositions to form
hybrid
what are the
general
types of
igneous
rocks?
Igneous Rock Types
two types can form from same magma:
1. Intrusive or Plutonic igneous rocks -
cool, crystallize and solidify beneath surface
in magma chamber or reservoir during
movement to surface
2. Extrusive or Volcanic igneous rocks -
rapidly cool and crystallize when molten
silicate material, solid rock debris, and gases
escape from subsurface through opening or
vent at surface
Magma vs Lava

hot streams or sheets of magma that

flow over the Earth's surface = lava
Lava vs. Pyroclastics
coherent (lava)
or fragmented
(pyroclastic)
volcanic material
fragments due
to violent
explosions of
erupting magma
in volcanic vent
"pyro" = "fire" +
”klastos" =
“broken”
 …how can we
distinguish between
different igneous
rocks and their
origins?
distinguished on basis of:
1. mineral assemblage
2. texture
Texture of Igneous Rocks
variations in sizes and shapes of mineral
grains and relationships between grains;
reflects:
1. Rate of Cooling - ease with which
crystals form from and grow within
magma
2. Magma composition/temperature -
control density and viscosity
3. Gas content of magma - high gas
content yields lower viscosity and larger
crystals
Low-silica basaltic liquids:
low viscosity (rapid flowing)
high temperatures (950˚-1200˚C)
crystals nucleate and grow easily

High-silica rhyolitic/granitic
liquids:
high viscosity (slow flowing)
low temperatures (≤ 850˚C)
difficulty in crystal nucleation and
growth
Effect of Cooling Rate
(a) Slow cooling - few
large crystals;
growth rate >
nucleation rate
(b) Rapid cooling -
many small
crystals;
nucleation rate >
growth rate
(c) Extremely
rapid cooling
obsidian - volcanic glass
(quench) - glass
produced
 …so what
kinds of
textures do
we observe in
igneous
rocks?
Some Igneous Textures
1. phaneritic - individual crystals visible
2. aphanitic - crystals can't be seen
with unaided vision
3. vitric (glassy) - extremely rapid
cooling or quenching
4. vesicular - gas cavities (vesicles)
5. porphyritic - large crystals
(phenocrysts) surrounded by fine-
grained matrix (groundmass)
6. pegmatitic - extremely coarse-
grained texture
Some Igneous Textures
 highly vesicular
basalts (low-
silica magma)
called
scoria
 highly vesicular
rhyolite (high-
silica magma)
called
pumice
 …so how
are igneous
rocks
classified?
Igneous Rock Classification
texture and mineral assemblage
differences in magma
composition reflected by:
 mineral assemblage

 variety and abundance

of different minerals
Igneous Rock Classification

• 1. Ultramafic rocks
 peridotite/pyroxenite/dunite

 black, dark gray or dark green

 composed of olivine, pyroxene, and minor

plagioclase, oxide or garnet

Igneous Rock Classification

2. Mafic rocks
 gabbro/basalt

 black, dark gray or dark green

 composed of olivine, calcium plagioclase, and

pyroxene
Igneous Rock Classification

3. Intermediate rocks
 diorite/andesite granodiorite/dacite

 medium-gray color

 amphibole and feldspar with some pyroxene

and biotite
Igneous Rock Classification

4. Felsic rocks
 granite/rhyolite

 medium- to light-gray or pink color

 quartz, potassium feldspar, minor sodium

plagioclase, biotite and amphibole

Pyroclastic Rock Classification
tuff - broken crystals
and volcanic fragments
≤ 2 mm diameter;
where hot particles
fused together, welded
tuff
volcanic breccia -
consolidated, angular
volcanic particles
greater than 2 mm
diameter
 …what’s the
nature of
magma bodies
that never
reach the
surface?
Igneous Intrusions - Plutons
any igneous
intrusion
regardless of
size, shape or
composition
called a ‘pluton’,
after Pluto and
Plutonic Theory
Igneous Intrusions
classification of plutons based on:
(1) geometry of intrusion
(a) size
(b) shape
(2) relationship to surrounding rocks
(a) concordant
(b) discordant
 …small-
scale
intrusive
bodies
Tabular Intrusions - Sill

concordant body - injected between layers of

older rock; composed of intermediate to basic
composition magma
Tabular Intrusions - Dike

discordant body - injected along fractures in

surrounding rocks; basic to granitic
composition
 …large-
scale
intrusive
bodies
 Laccoliths

concordant, mushroom-shaped, sill-like body;

magma of intermediate to granitic composition
Batholiths
discordant magma body with
exposed area of >100 km2
multiple intrusions
granitic composition with minor
intermediate varieties
Stocks

discordant magma body with exposed

area of ≤ 100 km2; usually of granitic
composition with minor intermediate
varieties
 …and what
about near-
surface
intrusive
bodies?
Volcanic Necks and Pipes
discordant
bodies
upper part of
conduit that
connects
volcanic vent
with magma
reservoir
Ring Dikes and Radial Dikes

either concentric (circular) or radial distribution

Pluton Formation
suggested to form by:
granitization - country rock
altered to granite by ion-rich
solutions
forceful injection - country
rock deformed and forced
aside as magma rises
buoyantly