Structural geomorphology

 Structural geomorphology; cycle of erosion, rejuvenation and

polygenetic relief;

 denudation chronology, regional erosion surfaces and peneplains;

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Introduction

 Geomorphology is the study of landforms, i.e. the shape of

the Earth’s surface.

 It attempts to explain why landscapes look as they do in

terms of the

i. Structures – erosion & landscape evolution,

ii. materials,

iii. processes, and

iv. history affecting regions.

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 Introduction - Uses of geomorphology
 Consider how we infer the geologic history of a region from

observation of the landforms.

Tectonics vs geomorphology

 Tectonic motions create geomorphic features like fault

scarps and grabens; - EARS

 from observation of scarps and grabens we infer the sense

of tectonic motions and something about their relative ages.

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Introduction - Uses of geomorphology

The Rock Cycle

Tectonism controls the
rock cycle and is
important to many
surficial processes and
other Earth Cycles.
 Every part of the rock
solidification
cycle that occurs at the
Earth’s surface has
geomorphic
consequences weathering

Erosion

Deposition
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 Introduction - Uses of geomorphology

Volcanism vs geomorphology

Volcanic activity creates calderas;

from the form of the caldera we learn about the mechanism of

eruption.

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 Introduction - Uses of geomorphology
 Weathering vs geomorphology

 Granite weathers to rounded jointstones;

 from observation of the shape of boulders and outcrops we can

quickly map granite plutons;

 from the shape we infer how they joint & how they chemically

weather.

 Resistant & weak strata determine the shapes of cliffs;

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Introduction - Uses of geomorphology
Glaciation & Geomorphology

 Glacial processes create geomorphic expressions such as

moraines; from the position, form, and age of the moraines

we learn about paleoclimate and the nature of glaciers.

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 Relevance of geomorphology

 Geomorphology is important because people live on landforms

and their lives are affected (+ and -) by geomorphic processes:

 Slope determines whether soil accumulates and makes

arable land

 Slope stability controls landslides

 Mountains drastically affect the weather, i.e.:

 rainshadows,

 monsoons

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 Relevance of geomorphology

 This is also a two-way process: Human action is one of the major

processes of geomorphic evolution:

 People have been building terraced hillsides for thousands of years

 People dam rivers, drain groundwater, engineer coastlines

 People plant or burn vegetation on a huge scale

 People are paving the world

 People are changing the climate

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Structural Geomorphology
Orogeny/mt building vs geomorphology

How high is this mountain?

• Elevation: height above sea level

• Slope: spatial gradients in elevation

• Relief: contrast between min. & max elevation in a region

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 Structural Geomorphology
 Note that a mountain is a feature of relief, not elevation (a high
area of low relief is a plateau)
 Slope controls the local stability of hillsides and sediment
transport – covered in fluvial processes
 Relief controls the regional erosion rate and sediment yield
(hence geomorpholocal processes)
 Elevation directly affects erosion and weathering only through
temperature, BUT, high elevation and high relief are generally
pretty well-correlated
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Structural Geomorphology
 Uplift/subsidence - steps
 vertical motions of the crust (i.e., of material points)

 Accumulation/denudation

 vertical change in the position of the

land surface with respect to material

points in the bedrock.

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 Structural Geomorphology

Important:
The net rate of change in elevation of the land surface is the sum of
uplift/subsidence rate and accumulation/denudation rate.

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 Structural Geomorphology

Hillslope evolution: qualitative approach

Some rocks are resistant to erosion (they form cliffs), some

are weak (they form slopes).

Resistant and weak are qualitative terms, but useful for

describing landscape evolution.

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 Structural Geomorphology

 Erosion is coupled to elevation which is referred as a negative

feedback.

 High elevation promotes rapid erosion through

 freeze-thaw processes (a rapid physical weathering

mechanism),
 sparse vegetation (above the treeline, roots do not stabilize

slopes),
 increased precipitation (orographic rainfall).

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 Structural Geomorphology

 There is also a general, correlation between high elevation and

high slope and relief, which promotes physical weathering and

sediment transport.
 Erosion is one of the direct sources of changes in elevation.

 Hence in the absence of tectonic uplift / subsidence, higher

terrain will be lowered fastest, tending to eliminate high slopes

and large relief differences.

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Structural Geomorphology

 In absence of tectonic disturbance, the negative feedback

between elevation and erosion tends to eliminate relief

 (Relief: contrast between min. & max elevation in a

region)

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 Structural Geomorphology

Erosion is coupled to uplift, a positive feedback

Removal of mass from the top of the crust causes it to rise

(ISOSTACY).

Loading of mass on top of the crust causes it to sink.

Since isostasy operates over some finite regional size, it is the

average mass of crust on that scale that determines uplift.

Hence eroding of valleys can cause the intervening mountains to

rise

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Structural Geomorphology

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 Structural Geomorphology

 For young tectonic activity, elevation and relief are direct

expressions of tectonic activity.

 Hence , anticlines are hills or mountains

 For old stable terrains, elevation and relief become expressions

of relative rates of erosion.
 Hence anticlines may just turn to be valleys if the older strata
exposed in anticlinal form are easily eroded.

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 Structural Geomorphology

 Ancient tectonic features must be recognized by the relations of

the rocks around them.

 Current tectonic activity can be monitored by seismology and

geodesy.

 Everything in between depends on geomorphology.

 Geomorphic expression is by far the easiest way to locate faults

at the surface, and far more precise (at the surface) than
seismology.

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 Structural Geomorphology

 When the form of an original geomorphic feature is known,

then magnitude of tectonic deformation can be determined by

measuring its current shape.

 Examples:

 fault scarps start from nothing, so height of scarp gives

magnitude of total dip-slip displacement.

 undisturbed drainages presumably go straight across faults;

lateral offset gives total strike-slip displacement.

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Structural Geomorphology

 marine terraces start at sea-level, so height of wave-cut

platform gives total uplift since abandonment of terrace.

 river terraces start with longitudinal profile of riverbed;

disturbances in shape and slope give total deformation and

tilt.

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 Structural Geomorphology

 When, furthermore, the age of the geomorphic feature is also

known, then the rate of tectonic deformation is determined as

well.

 How do you date geomorphology?

 This is a different problem from dating rocks!

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Structural Geomorphology

 Topographic profiles of uplifted

marine terraces to give two kinds of
information:

 Total vertical uplift from height of

wave-cut platforms initially at sea
level

 Relative deformation along shore

from shape of initial horizontal
markers
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