EARTH’S COMPONENTS

Prepared by: Dr. J.Seetharamaiah

The earth surface is covered by 28%land, 78% water this is unlike any other known planet
hydrosphere. It includes: oceans, lakes, seas, rivers, ice and aquifers. Most of the land is within
1km above sea level and most of the seafloor is between 3-4 km deep. The main categories of
materials that make up the earth are:

Minerals: Solid, inorganic substances with atoms arranged in an orderly pattern. Example:
quartz, calcite, pyrite, diamond.

Glasses: Solid, inorganic substances with atoms randomly arranged, forms when a liquid freezes
too fast to organize into a pattern. Example: window glass is quartz is melted then frozen
quickly.

Rocks: aggregates of minerals and/or glasses

Metals: solid mode entirely of metal atoms, rarely but occasionally occur in nature. Example:
native gold, copper, iron.

Melts: form when rock, minerals and /or glasses become hot and transform to liquid. Magma is
a melt beneath the surface; lava is a melt on the earth’s surface.

Volatiles: Materials that are gases at low temperature found at earth’s surface, such as water,
CO2, methane.

Minerals: Definition: a homogeneous, naturally occurring, solid, inorganic substance with a

definable chemical composition and an orderly internal arrangement of atoms.

The minerals are formed by three ways:

1. Solidification of a melt: Ex: Olivine, Mica, Quartx

2. Precipitation from solution. Ex. Gypsum, Halite
3. Solid-state diffusion. Ex. Kynanite, sillimanite

1
The minerals are destroyed by melting, dissolving and chemical reaction (oxidation, solid-phase
reactions).

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

Rocks consist of various minerals which are called Rock Forming Minerals. Some of them are useful for
industry (eg. Feldspar → Ceramics, and Glass industry, or Diatomite, a sedimentary rock → Sugar
industry) and are called Industrial Minerals and Rocks. Some minerals have high concentrations of
metallic elements (eg.Chalcopyrite-Cu, Galena –PbS), from which metals and valuable elements are
extracted, which are called Ore Minerals. Some minerals are used for decorative purposes (eg. iamond;
Corundum, Ruby, Sapphire; and Beryl, Aquamarine, Emerald) which are called Gemstones. When
HT/HP rocks consisting of Primary minerals are brought to surface by tectonic forces rock forming
minerals are decomposed and altered to Secondary minerals, which may be grouped as Clay minerals,
Serpentine minerals etc.

Classification of minerals based on Chemical Composition

There are approximately4,000 known minerals , however, only about 100 are relatively common. Based
on chemical composition seven principle classes of minerals are devided:

1. Silicates, 2. Oxides, 3. Sulfides, 4. Sulfates, 5. Halides, 6. Carbonates and 7. Native elemants.

Silicates

We might expect combinations of O and Si to be common and all silicates based on Si-O tetrahedron (4
faces). SiO4 has net charge of -4 (a complex ion), electrical neutrality accomplished 2 ways: 1. addition of
positive ions (metals: Fe, Mg, K, Na Al, Ca) and 2. sharing of O by 2 or more Si by creating networks of
SiO4 tetrahedra.

2
All rock forming silicate minerals are grouped into five divisions:

1. Nesosilicates: single tetrahedra: O on 4 corners, Si at center: example: olivine (Mg, Fe)2 Si O4

2. Sorosilicates: double tetrahedra: relatively rare Ex: epidote: a green gemstone.

3. Cyclosilicates: ring silicates-Ex: Beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6

4. Inosilicates: a) Single chains: Ex: pyroxenes

3
 b) Double chains: Ex: amphiboles

c) sheet silicates : Ex: micas: muscovite (white), biotite lack)

5. Tectosilicates, or "framework silicates," have a three-dimensional framework of silicate tetrahedra

with SiO2 or 1:2 ratio. This group comprises nearly 75% of the crust of the Earth.

InTectosilicates two major groups are present: a) Quartz group: Ex: Quartz-SiO2 second most
abundant mineral in crust and b) Feldspar group: Most abundant mineral in crust. The feldspar group
consisting of Alkali-feldspars or Potassium-feldspars (Microcline - KAlSi3O8 and Orthoclase -
KAlSi3O8 ) and Plagioclase feldspar (Albite - NaAlSi3O8, Oligoclase - (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8 (Na:Ca 4:1),
Andesine - (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8 (Na:Ca 3:2), Labradorite - (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8 (Na:Ca 2:3), Bytownite -
(Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8 (Na:Ca 1:4), Anorthite - CaAl2Si2O8.

4
Sulfides
Sulfides are minerals composed of metal contains combined with sulfur in the form of sulfide ions (S2-,
S22-). Example: Galena PbS; Pyrite FeS2; Sphalerite ZnS
Sulfides form in reduced (low oxygen) environments.

Sulfates
Sulfates are minerals composed of metal cations combined with sulfur in the form of sulfate ions: SO4 2-
Example- CaSO4 2 H2O Gypsum.

Carbonates
Carbonates are minerals composed of metal cations combined with carbon in the form of carbonate ions:

5
Oxides
Oxide minerals composed of metal cations combined with oxygen in the form of O2-

Halides
Halides are minerals composed of metal cations combined with anions of the halogen elements (chlorine,
iodine, fluorine, bromine)

Native Elements:
Minerals composed of atoms of a single element are referred to as native elements. Example :

The important silicate rock-forming minerals can also be classified based on iron and magnesium
content.
Ferromagnesium minerals Non-ferromagnesium minerals
Contain Fe and /or mg contain no Fe or Mg
Dark (brown, black, green light (gray, pink, white
Density about 3.0 g/cm3 density about 2.7 g/cm3

6
 minerals: olivine quartz
augite orthoclase
hornblende plagioclase
biotite muscovite

Identification of minerals in the filed

Every mineral species possesses a Unique set of properties that results from its unique
combination of chemical composition, chemical bonding mechanism and crystal structure.
In the field, correct mineral identification generally depends on the accurate identification of
macroscopic properties (physical properties)

• External Crystal Form and habit: shape of crystal growth habit

• Cleavage: way in which the mineral breaks or cleaves
• Fracture
• Hardness: Moh’s hardness scale
• Specific Gravity: ratio of density of mineral vs water
• Color
• Streak: color of the pulverized mineral
• Luster: : way in which mineral surface scatters light
• Tenacity
• Transparency

The more important physical properties of minerals are: a) Crystal form, b) cleavage, c)
hardness, d) density, e) streak and luster. Other physical properties such as color, tenacity,
reaction with hydrochloric acid and magnetism are important properties of some minerals.

CRYSTAL FORM OR HABIT - The external morphology of crystals generally reflect the
internal arrangement of their constituent atoms and can be used to identify many mineral species.
Mineral with a definite internal atomic structure without development of well-defined faces is
said to be crystalline. In this case the mineral is said to high crystallised. Garnet, staurolite etc.
The external morphology of crystals generally reflect the internal arrangement of their
constituent atoms. Example: Halite

7
A mineral is said to be cryptocrystalline when degree of crystallization is noticeable under high
power microscope. The term amorphous is used to describe complete lack of crystallinity. The
mineral lacks the outer geometric form the term massive is used. Slow cooling→ few centers of
crystallization →big crystals with common orientation. Rapid cooling→ many centers of
crystallization → randomly oriented small crystals.

Some of the common minerals in which crystal form is especially diagnostic are quartz, halite,
garnet, fluorite, pyrite, galena, amphibole and pyroxene. Remember, however, that two or more
different minerals may have the same internal structure and may develop similar crystals.
Example: halite (made from sodium and chlorine) and galena (made from lead and sulfur) share
the same cubic crystal structure.

Some minerals have the same chemical formula, but they are different minerals by virtue of their
different crystal structures. Each crystalline form represents a separate mineral species. Ex:
diamond ( C ) and graphite ( C).

8
CLEAVAGE - Orientation and number of planes of weakness within a mineral. Directly
reflects the orientation of weak bonds within the crystal structure. This feature is also highly
diagnostic.
So, cleavage results from planes of weakness within the crystal structure along which the crystal
break. If definite planes of weakness exist, the mineral will cleave or break , along the planes of
weakness much more easily than in other directions. The surface along which the break

9
develops is referred to as the cleavage plane, and the orientation of the plane is the cleavage
direction.

One Directional Cleavage peels in layers much like taking individual cards off a deck.
Mica is a good example of this type of cleavage.

Two Directional Cleavage breaks along two directions at right angles. Feldspar is a good
example of this type of cleavage. Another two directional cleavage which shows not at right
angles. Example: amphibole.

Three Directional not right angles is often very easy to see.

The mineral seems to have three dimensional boxes that would break if dropped. Calcite
is a good example of this type of cleavage. Another mineral which shows cleavage in
three directions at right angles. Example: halite. Cleavage in four directions (Octahedral
Cleavage) is complex cleavage. This cleavage is often hard to see in some mineral
samples containing it. A good example of this type of cleavage is the mineral Fluorite.

Fracture

Fracture is a mineral property where the atomic bonding between atoms in the crystal structure is
perfect with no weakness. When these minerals are stressed they shatter making no two pieces
truly the same. There are two basic types of fractures, Conchoidal and Non-Conchoidal
(irregular).

Conchoidal Fractures are easy to spot. They have a circular pattern in their break are
much like broken bottle glass. Obsidian is a good example of this mineral property.

Non-Conchoidal Fracture minerals are also easy to identify. They have no directional
cleavage planes or swirls in there structure. A good example of this is the mineral Quartz.

HARDNESS - This is the resistance of the mineral to abrasion or scratching. This property
doesn't vary greatly from sample to sample of the same mineral, and thus is highly diagnostic. It
also is a direct reflection of the bonding type and internal atomic arrangement. A value is
obtained by comparing the mineral to a standard scale devised by Moh, which is comprised of
10 minerals ranging in hardness from talc (softest) to diamond (hardest).

Moh’s Hardness scale:

1. Talc 2. Gypsum
2.Calcite 4. Fluorite
5.Apatite 6. Feldspar

10
 7.Quartz 8. Topaz
9.Corumdum 10. Diamond

On the Mohs scale, graphite (a principal constituent of pencil "lead") has a hardness of 1.5; a
fingernail, 2.2–2.5; a copper penny, 3.2–3.5; a pocketknife 5.1; a knife blade, 5.5; window glass
plate, 5.5; and a steel file, 6.5. A streak plate (unglazed porcelain) has a hardness of 7.0. Using
these ordinary materials of known hardness can be a simple way to approximate the position of a
mineral on the scale.

The Mohs scale is a purely ordinal scale. For example, corundum (9) is twice as hard as topaz
(8), but diamond (10) is four times as hard as corundum. The table below shows comparison with
absolute hardness measured by a sclerometer, with pictorial examples
Mohs Mineral Chemical formula Absolute hardness
hardness by Knoop
1 Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 1

2 Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O 32
3 Calcite CaCO3 135

4 Fluorite CaF2 163

– – –
5 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH ,Cl ,F ) 430

6 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 560

Feldspar
7 Quartz SiO2 820
– –
8 Topaz Al2SiO4(OH ,F )2 1340

9 Corundum Al2O3 1800

10 Diamond C 7000

COLOR
The color of a mineral is the result of a reflection, transmission, refraction and dispersion of
light as it interacts with mineral’s chemical and structural components. Basing on the color the

11
minerals are groped into two: 1) Idiochromatic: minerals characterized by constant shade of
color are said to be idiochromatic. Ex: Azurite ( always shows blue), olivine (green), Sulfur
(yellow) and Galena (grey).2. Allochromatic: Minerals are characterized by colors that vary from
one specimen to another or even within the same specimen. The color is strongly influenced by
composition, impurities and /or defects. Ex; quartz shows different colors. Color should be
considered in mineral identification but should never be used as the major identifying
characteristic.

STREAK is the color of the mineral powder and is typically obtained by scratching a mineral
specimen on an unglazed porcelain plate called a streak plate. Since most streak plates have a
hardness of about 6.5, only minerals that are somewhat softer than 6 will leave a powder when
scratched on the plate. Harder minerals will not leave a powder on the plate but can be powdered
by other means.
When a mineral is powdered, it usually exhibits a much more diagnostic color than when it
occurs in large pieces. The color of the powdered mineral is referred to as streak. Commonly, a
mineral’s streak will be different from the color seen in hand specimen. Some minerals possess a
characteristic colored steak for example hematite possess a diagnostic brick-red streak. This is because
hematite absorbs nearly all wavelengths of light except for a narrow band in the red part of the
spectrum. Similarly, azurite shows blue streak because it transmits blue wavelengths while absorbing
the red and yellow parts of spectrum.

LUSTER
Luster is the appearance of a mineral surface in reflected light, when looking at a macroscopic
specimen is principally the result of the amount of light reflected from its surface, the scattering
of light from the surface, and the amount of light absorbed by the mineral. These three variables
controls different luster's possessed by minerals.
The different types of luster referred to are:
Metallic luster: strictly belongs to opaque minerals, where light is completely reflected from the
surface. Most of the ore minerals having high content of metals shows metallic luster. Eg.,
Galena, Magnetite, Pyrite, Chalcopyrite.

12
Non-metallic luster: other luster types are collectively known as non-metallic luster. It may
be brilliant or faint where reflection is poor which is due to scattering of light from the
mineral surface.
Adamantine: an exceptionally brilliant luster shown by minerals having very high RI. Eg.,
Diamond, Zircon, Corundum (Ruby, Sapphire). These minerals are used as valuable gem stones.
Vitreous: shown by broken glass. Eg., Silicates (Q, Feld), Carbonate (Cal) with relatively low
RI.
Resinous: shown by resins. Eg., Sphene, S.
Greasy: shown by oily glass. It results from light scattered by a microscopically rough
surface. Eg. Nep (due to surface hydration having different RI), massive Quartz.
Pearly: pearl-like. It is due to reflection from successive layers, such as cleavage surfaces. Eg.,
Talc, Muscovite.
Silky: silk-like. It is due to the reflection from fibrous structure of minerals. Eg. Gypsum,
Asbestos, Malachite.
Earthy: luster of a surface from which there is little or no reflection. It is due to the porous and
fine-grained nature of mineral. Eg., Lim, Kaolinite.

TENACITY
The resistance that a mineral offers to breaking, crushing, bending, cutting, drawing or tearing is
its tenacity. It is mineral's cohesiveness.
1. Brittle: A mineral that breaks and powders easily (Sulfides, Carbonates, Silicates and
Oxides),
2.Malleable: A mineral that can be hammered out without breaking, into thin sheets. They are
plastic (Native metals),
3. Sectile: A mineral that can be cut with a knife into thin shavings (talc),
4. Flexible: A mineral that bends but retains it bent form. Does not resume its original shape →
permanent deformation (Asbestos, clay minerals, Chlorite, Talc, gypsum)
5. Elastic: A mineral that after bending springs back and resumes its original position.
(Muscovite or biotite).

13
DENSITY - Defined as the mass divided by the volume mass/volume; SI units are: kg/m3 or kg
m-3, but geologists often use g/cm3 . Galena with density of 7.5, pyrite 5, quartz; feldspar, and
calcite between 2.6 and 2.8.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY - Ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of
water. Note that rwater = 1 g cm-3. S.G. is unit less. Examples - quartz (SiO2) has a S.G. of 2.65
while galena (PbS) has a S.G. of 7.5 and gold (Au) has a S.G. of 19.3.

TRANSPARENCY
A mineral transmits light can be observed in hand specimens. These minerals are described as:
Transparent: objects are visible when viewed through the mineral Example: quartz, calcite and
biotite.
Translucent- light is transmitted through the mineral, but not an image . Ex: gypsum
Opaque- no light is transmitted, even on the thinnest specimen edges ex: magnetite or pyrite.

OTHER PROPERTIES
Reaction to Hydrochloric acid: Clacite is one of the most common minerals of earth’s surface,
when treated with dilute HCl , it will bubble vigorously. Dolomite , a mineral similar to calcite
will react with cold dilute HCl, but only if the specimen is powdered.
Magnetism: Magnetite is one of the few minerals to show obvious magnetic attraction.
Taste: The salty taste of halite is a definite and unmistakable property of that mineral

-------00000------

14